Genetic Engineering of Bacterias - Term Paper Example

REPORT: GENETIC ENGINEERING OF BACTERIAS Abstract Genetic engineering is an important requirement is the current developing and developed world. The aim of genetic engineering specifically is trying eliminating weak genes, resulting in the improvement of gene quality. Genetic engineering passes through numerous stages ranging from looking for appropriate genes to manipulating the genes into certain condition that is favourable. Other factors associated to genetic engineering include international security, food security, and application of human rights. These are some of the limitations that are associated with genetic engineering. Table of Contents Table of Contents 2 Introduction 3 Report Objectives 3 The Process of Genetic Engineering of Bacteria 4 Ethical Benefits of Genetic Engineering of Bacteria 5 Ethical Limitations of Genetic Engineering of Bacteria 8 International insecurity 8 Safety and ethical concerns 9 Application of human rights 10 Disrupting Food Chains 10 Control of Genetic Engineering in Australia 11 Conclusions 12 Recommendations 12 References 13 Introduction Genetic engineering is referred to as modifying the genes of organisms by humans, in a method that would not naturally happen under normal conditions. Genetically modified organisms are created by using techniques of recombinant DNA, and not by natural or traditional breeding of plants and animals. The first genetic engineering of bacteria was done in the early 1970’s. Genetic engineering seeks to develop genes that are presumed to have good traits or characteristics, and eliminate weak or unfavorable genes (Snedden, 27). This is basically done to improve the quality of a species, and eliminate factors like illnesses that may reduce the longevity, survival or quality of that species. Genetic engineering due to its element of restructuring the genetic makeup of genes of organisms is deemed controversial and thus should be handled carefully. For the purpose of this report, the writer shall go into detail to find out the ethical roles in genetic engineering, should genetic engineering be encouraged, and what are the ethical implications of genetic engineering. Report Objectives The report seeks to find out how genetic engineering in bacteria is carried out, the benefits and repercussions accrued by the society by engaging in genetic engineering, most importantly find out and verify the ethical and moral implications of developing and adapting genetic engineering in the society, and find out where, when, why and the who is involved and should be held accountable for the future implications of genetic engineering. Further more, the report will streamline the social, ethical and legal frameworks and regulatory systems in place to monitor genetic engineering. The Process of Genetic Engineering of Bacteria The process of genetic modification involves evaluating various genes and their functions, and how those genes interact with other genes for the normal functioning of the main body organs and bodily processes. During genetic engineering of bacteria, the process involves experiments on loss of function of genes; where the organism is manipulated such that it performs without the activity of a particular gene(s), tracking genes; which entails discovering data about specific protein interaction and localization and the protein products, gain of function of genes; which entails constructing and increasing the function of genes by frequent synthesis induction of proteins and replicating copies of the gene of interest, and studies on expression of genes done by finding out where and when a particular protein is produced thus helps in administering reporter genes (Snedden, 29). As the world develops and becomes more populated, global scientists have established that genetic engineering of bacteria is a sure way to investigate favorable conditions and biodiversity elements, that are necessary to help in improving the environment which has been encroached by humans and help in mass production of food. When selecting a gene for modifying, it should be from a bacterium that can be extracted easily, and that can be tested for success of modification. The researcher should be very careful when handing lethal or non-lethal bacteria, and follow basic safety and hygienic measures like washing their hands before and after handling bacteria. Although there are varied processes involved in genetic engineering, there is a standard procedure that involves selecting and preparing the gene of interest, most appropriate is a non-lethal bacterium (Hill, 42). One can obtain a specimen of the chosen bacterium by a swab on the selected colony by use of a loop and place it in a test tube, at less than 50 degrees Celsius, for not less than a few seconds, slightly immerse the inoculated loop through water. Depending on the choice of gene for transferring, add restriction enzyme to the inoculated loop in the test tube and heat it. When transforming the chosen gene to the other bacteria species, use a loop to swab the colony of bacteria to be transformed, slide the inoculated loop on agarose medium that is on a Petri dish and leave the specimen to incubate for two days. After the incubation, add it to the earlier prepared gene of choice and allow the new mixture to incubate for two more days. This allows diffusion of genes. To ensure that the test was successful, use testing techniques that will show the genes were assimilated. Ethical Benefits of Genetic Engineering of Bacteria It is deemed unethical to test vaccines and cure for diseases on animals like mice, monkeys and pigs, therefore bacteria use has been advocated for in genetic modification. Bacteria are easily grown, relatively cheap, quick multiplication of bacterial clonals, easy transformation of genes and take a short period of time to study the process and attainment of the desired results/ products (Cohen 78). Furthermore genes isolated from the bacterium can further be used for other researches in the future unlike when using animals. In industrial setting, to avoid harmful effects of fumes and chemical wastes to humans, which may result in chronic illnesses, permanent disabilities or even death, bacteria are used to perform tasks such as cleaning up oil spills and cleansing the air from toxic and carbonic wastes and fumes (Hill, 132). Nevertheless, bacteria have been used in fuel and food production like chymosin used in making cheese. The report indicates that genetically modified bacteria have over the years been beneficial in management and development of agricultural systems around the world. It has helped to discover elements necessary to improve production of crops and protection of crops. Moreover, the research has been integral in improving the environmental settings through safe emissions to the atmosphere, developing environmental control frameworks, degrading of pollutants that destroy the environment, helps in reducing emissions of harmful by products to the atmosphere by aiding in production of genetically modified bacteria used in ore and metal extraction and environmentally conducive batteries with lithium-ions (Park, 21). In Agriculture, genetic engineering of bacteria has been used to produce more quality and disease resistant crops thus feed millions of people who would otherwise die from hunger or from nutritional deficiency diseases. In development of genetically modified foods, they are categorized into three generations. Genetically modified crops in the first generation are created to resist infections and attack by insects and diseases and being resistant to herbicides. These crops are also modified to resist fungal and viral attack. This has been beneficial in increasing crop production due to easily managing weeds and insects (Cohen 67). Second generation crops are directed at developing and increasing crop yields, in areas that are saline, dry and cold, and help in improving the value of crops nutrition-wise. Third generation of genetically modified crops are crops that have vaccines and drugs that are edible, this includes growth hormones that aid in improving body sizes of both man and animals. They are also referred to as pharmaceutical crops (Hill, 60). These crops once eaten by animals, they can be used in dairy and poultry farming to increase the quantity of protein products. To improve the success rates of organ transplants in humans from pigs, pigs have been genetically modified. Production of genetically modified crops has increased quality yields, reduced cultivation costs due to reduced reliance on use of pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers (Herren 87). They have reduced environmental degradation caused by chemicals used in farming emitted to the atmosphere and directed to water sources. Genetic engineering of bacteria has been beneficial in mass production of human growth hormones, insulin which is used to treat and manage Diabetes, Follistim drugs that are essential in treating infertility in humans, production of monoclonal antibodies used in diagnosing diseases, humans serum albumin that is key to transportation of fundamental elements to the liver, antihemophillic elements useful in blood clotting and vaccines among other medicinal factors. Genetic modification has been beneficial in testing for cures for diseases, gene therapy useful in treating immune deficiencies, and replacing defective human genes with more quality and functional ones, which can be passed to future generation of the patient. All this has helped improve the lives of humans and find cure for diseases (Masters 43). Ethical Limitations of Genetic Engineering of Bacteria Genetic engineering is an area of research that causes tension and intense debate on its moral and ethical aspect (Almond & Parker, 98). This is basically geared by the fact that it involves actual restructuring of genetic materials and genetic make-up thus interrupting the natural evolution of things. This interruption although has accrued some benefits, it cannot ignore the adverse ethical implications it poses to spiritual believers and the scientists themselves. According to this report, gene transformation or modification in humans is done to replace or redesign defective genes to a more functional and favorable gene (Masters 67). The notion that one can combine genes with good traits and improve intelligence is misplaced since there is no wisdom gene. Furthermore, personal traits are influenced by not only their genetic make up but by social, spiritual, past experiences and environmental factors. In the quest to modify the human form, there are implications of causing serious distortion of nature as we know it and create conflict in science, from what its meant to be; explore and discover natural evolution and mechanisms and how things work the way they do, to interrupting and redesigning the mechanisms and processes of natural evolution. Other ethical complications that have risen are; International insecurity As the world evolves and great economies fight to stamp their authority and superiority, nations have involved themselves in development and establishment of military power strategies to concur with their economic might. Among military tools and frameworks that are in the works or that are already in place is genetic engineered bacteria as a form of bio warfare (Herren 97). With the increasing need for safety, developed countries have embarked on making biological war fare devices. This has been easy because the same equipment and methodologies used in genetic modification of bacteria for industrial, medicinal and agricultural purposes, can be used easily and effectively to produce military systems (Masters 54). More often than not, terrorists are using this technology to attack their assumed enemies, thus massive destruction of property and death tolls rising to the millions. In Australia and in the United states, there has been a key interest in making and implementing countermeasures in civil defense, and making it a priority. Moreover, the two countries have imposed policies, rules and legislations in biotechnology and other related industries. Genetic engineering application has been done by developing bacterial diseases and pathogens that are lethal to human life like Ebola and small pox among others (Herring 78). Safety and ethical concerns Apart from its application in biological warfare, genetic engineering has raised concern on the safety and ethics of genetically modified crops. Safety concerns have been attributed to complications like adverse allergies and toxic reactions to eating such food, and contracting or developing fatal diseases like cancer (Masters 132). Other issues are the flow of genes into non-transgenic crops which will result in lack of control, especially if it grows in the wild, negative effects on the organisms that genetic engineering has been done on, like complete change of genetic makeup thus producing unknown species, and biodiversity impact on the environment. Ethically, religious beliefs do not support playing God. There are concerns over the rights of intellectual property and labeling on genetically modified goods, and some corporations having control on the food supply will place the world in a tight spot (Sherlock & Morrey, 72). Application of human rights Genetic engineering poses a dilemma on when and to whom the human rights should be applied to (Sherlock & Morrey, 92). When creating new forms of life, human genes have been induced on organisms that are non-human. In China, human genes are induced into pepper and tomatoes to help activate their growth, thus arising real ethical questions as to how many human genes should the tomato contain not to be eaten and to when and what percentage does a non-human organism have human genes, for it to be referred as human. And if it is partly human, do human rights apply (Herren 99). For the genetically modified mice that produce human sperms, does it mean the man or woman thereof is a mice and be treated as one or human and accorded his/her human rights? A vegetarian who takes tomatoes induced with human genes, are they herbivorous or cannibals? A pig induced with human genes is it a pig that deserves human rights or what? This causes an array of endless quagmire as to when one is considered human and when not. Disrupting Food Chains Although genetic engineering has been used to conserve the environment by modifying bacteria that help plants produce plastic, thus reduction in reliance on plastics from petroleum, there is a more devastating effect to this process (Almond & Parker, 80). If by chance pollen of the gene of the modified plants cross pollinates with wild plants, the world will litter with plastic plants that do not decay, which is an environmental hazard and disrupt food chains. If such plants which are poisonous or inedible are consumed by primary eaters, which in turn are eaten or are inedible by secondary eaters, it can cause a chain of death in the entire food chain (Park, 89). Control of Genetic Engineering in Australia Due to the controversy of genetic engineering, Australia’s government and engineers involved in biotechnology are sworn to safeguarding human life and following rules and regulations laid out. The ethical responsibilities placed on such engineers are such that they keep the interest of the community first before personal interests or sectional benefits (Herren 67). These ethical responsibilities are achieved through ethical behavior by the stakeholders involved, provide competence in work delivery, application of innovations in the engineering practice if it will improve the quality of life of the community, offer excellence in engineering, the body involved with the research to offer equal opportunities to the population, and uphold social justice (Masters 131). Moreover, be united in their purpose as genetic engineers, and their efforts should be geared towards providing sustainable development in food and environmental security for the community. Australia’s engineering code of ethics is meant for the members to act in the interest of the community’s health, welfare, and safety through sound judgments in creating a balance of considerations. Members should ensure the community’s concern on environment is addressed (Setlow 18). When dealing with an employer or a client, the engineer under the ethical rules should inform them of the negative effects of the proposed product, be confidential in information they have regarding the processes involved, offer the best of their skills in honesty and in good faith and be loyal unless the community’s health, welfare and safety is at risk. The codes are also based on the relations of the members to colleagues, when the member stands as an expert witness, as a whistle blower and when making public statements. Conclusions Though genetic engineering of bacteria has arguably helped in agriculture, medicine and other facets, its limitations outweigh the benefits. It risks interfering with biosphere, change human genetic makeup, risks developing health issues, degrades the environment and raise real ethical issues and questions on the rights of humans, and the rights of human beings to use other species to alter evolution of life. Recommendations The writer of this report is of the opinion that Genetic engineering should be done carefully, on stringent measures and only done to the sections that will improve the universe as whole like processes that will conserve the environment. The writer believes that the limitations of genetic engineering outweigh its benefits since it topples the balance on improving the quality of life and what constitutes to human life. References Almond, Brenda & Parker .Michael. Ethical issues in the new genetics: are genes us? Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, 2003. Cohen Marina. Genetic Engineering. London: Crabtree Publishing Company, 2009. Herren, Ray. Introduction to biotechnology: an agricultural revolution. London: Cengage Learning, 2003. Herring Mark. Genetic Engineering. London: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006 Hill, Walter. Genetic Engineering: A Primer. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2002. Masters, Colin. DNA and your body: what you need to know about biotechnology. New York: UNSW Press, 2005. Park, Chris. The environment: principles and applications. London: Routledge, 2001. Setlow, Jane. Genetic engineering: principles and methods. London: Crabtree Publishing Company, 2006. Sherlock, Richard & Morrey, John. Ethical issues in biotechnology. Utah: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002. Snedden, Robert. DNA and Genetic Engineering; Cells and Life. London: Heinemann Library, 2007. Read More