Factors that Influence the Toxicity of a Substance and its Manifestations within an Organism - Term Paper Example

FRunning head: Toxicology Toxicology Name Institute Date Factors that influence the toxicity of a substance and its manifestations within an organism Introduction The production and use of toxic substance has steadily increased within the last decade; nevertheless, there is limited or scant information/knowledge about the risks of these substances to human health as well as other organism. For instance the general knowledge with regards to toxic impacts on freshwater organisms is mostly restricted to average temporary toxicity. Again there is limited information on factors influencing these toxic substances and how they are manifested within an organism (Dabrunz, et al., 2011). The most important recent as well as near‐term issues of medicine is toxicity in organism or ecological systems, particularly because there is no concrete experimental that on unintended and adverse effects of toxicity as well as how these can be detected. In spite of the issues of health and safety dangers linked to toxicity, there is a no important quantitative analysis and empirical data on risk assessments. A great deal of this is as a result of scientific ambiguity over permanent medical reactions. If toxicological issues are to be tackled, the question is how we tackle these issues in light of no concrete empirical information (Jaipreet, 2008). This paper highlights some of the factors associated with toxicity as well as their manifestation within an organism. Toxicology and Toxicity Toxicology can be defined as “the study of the adverse effects of chemical, physical or biological agents on living organisms and the ecosystem, including the prevention and amelioration of such adverse effects” (Society of Toxicology, 2005). Toxicity (or hazard) on the other hand, is the inborn ability of an agent to bring about damage. This property will only change if the agent is changed in some way. It will not change with changes in conditions of use or exposure. Factors that influence the toxicity of a substance One of the factors is duration of exposure. This can be categorized under three, acute, subacute, sub chronic and chronic. Severe toxicity refers to a cause and an impact that is apparent in terms of days and weeks. Exposure to the chemical substance can either be severe or chronic in a poisoning condition. Severe poisoning usually takes place when a particular exposure causes a direct impact while chronic poisoning refers to impacts found to be following any constant permanent exposure to moderately low levels of the chemicals (Nweke and Okpokwasili 2010). Apart from the duration, exposure routes are also very significant in influencing the toxicity of a substance in an organism. The impacts of exposure are significantly determined by the exposure routes usually considered to be air and water pollution, contaminated food, and contact with toxins in both the normal and work surroundings. Some chemical substances, e.g. parathion, are similarly toxic by all three routes of exposure although the most of them are not similarly toxic by all the three routes of exposure, regardless of the period of exposure. Routes of exposure to direct include contaminated air, water, soil, food, and customers products Further, types of an organism/animal or physiology of the organism is very vital. The brutality of a substance's toxicity is the function of its association with the bodily processes of a specific living being. For instance, chocolate is relatively toxic to canines although modestly to other animals. Consumed in very big portions, vitamins too may cause toxicity in humans. Theobromine, a chemical that originates from chocolate, is poisonous to dogs although not to rodents. Toxicity of a substance is also affected by the overall nutritional status, genetic traits of the organism as well as environmental factors. Undernourishment has been linked to a high danger of Blackfoot disease, with is caused by chronic intakes of 10 mg of inorganic arsenic compounds. The effect of a person’s hereditary profile on iron toxicity is well identified. People who possess the double recessive genes for hemochromatosis have a low capacity to control iron absorption, this leads to iron accumulation in soft tissues that may cause organ breakdown over time (John, 2006) exposures to substances that affect changes in absorption or excretion of agents are frequently associated with the accumulation of nutrients in the body. For example, the chronic consumption of high levels of ethanol is associated with the accumulation of iron in the liver and other tissue Environmental factors entails this is a term used to describe harmful agents in air, soil, food and water, as well as substances that can be ingested or absorbed through the skin or mucous membranes. These agents may be present at home or at work. Environmental agents are responsible for most diseases and are relatively easy to measure and control. Our bodies are equipped with defense mechanisms that are able to detoxify and eliminate many environmental agents, particularly when we are exposed to low doses. If however, exposures exceed the capacity of our bodies to cope with harmful agents (excessive dose) we may develop a disease. Please note that our exposures at work are also considered to be environmental factors. Lastly, the interaction between nutrients/agents is also significant in determining toxicity of a substance in an organism. In conditions that the level of one nutrient influences the function or secretion of another nutrient, the level of ingestion and storage of the latter nutrient shows the level at which the previous nutrient becomes toxic. An example of such an association is between zinc and copper (Boukaiba et al., 1993; Prasad et al., 1978). Increased levels of zinc may lead to copper insufficiency in animals. The intensities at which zinc toxicity signs arise are extremely lesser than the intensities at which zinc toxicity signs arise when the intensities of assimilation and storage of copper are elevated, if the assimilation of copper and tissue copper levels are less. Manifestation of toxicity of a substance within an organism Lead poisoning (also known as plumbism, colica Pictonum, saturnism, Devon colic, or painter's colic) is a medical condition caused by increased levels of the heavy metal lead in the body. Lead affects a number of body processes and is toxic to various organs and tissues such as the heart, bones, intestines, kidneys, and reproductive and nervous systems. It influences the development of the nervous system and hence it is specifically toxic to young ones, leading to potentially long-term learning and behaviour difficulties. Symptoms infection includes abdominal pain, confusion, headache, anaemia, irritability, and in severe cases seizures, coma, and death. Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) is a contaminant-mediated severe life-threatening disease; commonly hastened by contamination with either Staphylococcus aureus or group A Streptococcus. It is associated with high fever, irritation, hypotension, multiorgan breakdown (including a minimum of 3 or more organ systems), and desquamation, normally of the palms and soles, 1-2 weeks following the beginning of severe disease. Moreover, the medical syndrome may include severe myalgia, nausea, diarrhea, headache, and non-focal neurologic disorders (Ellis et al., 2009) In conclusion, it is clear that the level of toxicity of a substance is linked to several factors which collectively or individually have a strong bearing the extent of toxicity of a substance in an organism manifested in various ways. More research is still needed to explore other factors not mentioned in this paper. Part b) Explain how the nutritional status of an individual can determine the occurrence of disease. Provide some examples of health problems or disease associated with poor nutrition. Key concepts: Nutrition status, diseases Introduction It is a known fact that poor nutrition does play a great role in occurrence of diseases. It is a main source of diseases and bereavement all over the world. In the USA alone, unhealthy eating and inactivity cause about 1200 deaths every day, five times more than the number of people killed by guns, HIV, and drug use combined (McGiinnins, and Foege, 1993). In the third world countries, undernourishment alone have an effect on approximately 800 million individuals and approximately half of the 10.4 million of annual children mortalities are related to poor nutritional status. The hopes for easing pain and enhancing the quality of life are incredibly factual, and have produced an excitement heretofore unidentified. More recently, there has been a renewed interest and an extensive study on associations between nutrient intake and the various outcomes has raised the possibility that poor nutrition/malnutrition do contribute to the occurrences of diseases (Robert and Heaney, 2006). In a separate study, Brian Leibovitz (1994) confirmed that an individual nutrition status is one of the most important determinants of human health. this is just but one of the few studies indicated that , significant progress has been made in building an evidence base on nutrition’s importance in improving prevention of the disease, however, little studies have been done to show exactly how nutritional status of an individual determine episodes of illness. Again, the few studies done on the linkages between nutrition and diseases have various contradictions and unclear conclusion which may be attributed to different study settings and change with time. According to Leila and Mary (2005) assurance in nutrient-disease relationships do change with time, often in an unexpected direction. The current knowledge gap may also be attributed to, as Anthony Worsley (2002) puts it, Lack of relevance (e.g. knowledge of cholesterol may be more relevant to 60 years olds than to 16 years olds – so why teach it to children?), lack or insufficient statistical power to detect the cause-effect relationship between nutritional status and diseases, as well as matching of knowledge and outcome variables. The above background highlights underscore the pressing need to fill up knowledge gaps and to refine further related conclusions as well as suggesting appropriate recommendations. Nutrition status Nutrition can be defined as the supply of food to cells and organisms to sustain their life. Nutrition is the consumption of food, measured in relative to the body’s nutritional requirements. High-quality nutrition involves a sufficient, healthy balanced diet mixed with regular physical exercise. It can be simply understood as consuming food and nutrients and using them to function healthily. Diseases A disease is simply the opposite of health. It’s the abnormal functioning of an individual body. The World Health Organization's claims that health is “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO, 1946). Ways through which nutrition of an individual determine occurrence of a disease Individual nutritional status has a strong significance to ones immune system (Martin Stjernman and Dennis Hasselquist, 2003). Individual nutrition’s status regulates of facilitates effective body immune response. Poor nutrition significantly deprives immune system of the components needed to generate an effective immune response thus makes it less able to find and destroy germs. Marcos, Nova and Montero (2003) assert that inadequate consumption of energy and macronutrients and/or as a result of lack of particular micronutrients weakens the immune system, repressing immune functions that are essential to host defense. According to the three, the most common disorders are observed in cell-mediated resistance, complement system, phagocyte function, cytokine production, mucosal secretory antibody reaction, and antibody similarity. Nutrients like vitamins, minerals and some trace elements for instance play the crucial role in the maintenance of immune-complete/ balance. Antioxidant nutrient assist in the antioxidant/oxidant balance in the immune cell, as well as in preserving these cells from oxidative pressure and protecting their sufficient function (Grimble 1997, Chandra 2002). On the other hand, Proteins solved in fluid spaces and in blood ensure defense reactions against infections, the binding and transport of water-insoluble substances as well as blood coagulation in case of injuries, just to name but a few. An individual nutritional status lacking for instance protein energy often causes immune deficiency leading to not only increased frequency but also severity of infections. People who are malnourished either do not take in enough calories and nutrients, or the body can't use the food they do take in. Either way, it can weaken your immune system in basically two ways. Deficiency in some nutrients may make the body unable to produce white blood cells, producing essential in fighting infection and the ability of white blood cells to engulf and consume bacteria is decreased. Individual nutrition is also associated with good/strong skin which guards the body against penetration by pathogens. On the other hand, Poor nutrition increases the body’s exposure to infections infectious organisms, for instance, inadequate amounts of vitamin C cause small vessels in the body which bring nutrients to the skin to become fragile; the skin therefore breaks down more easily, facilitating the entry of infectious organisms. Lack of niacin, or vitamin 83, leads to pellagra, which is linked to skin failure. Individuals’ nutritional status is also vital when one is sick or undergoing stress. In case there is poor nutrition, the bodies immune system can be weaken and hamper the healing process (Somer, 1992) The normal body chemical function is also determined by an individual nutritional status, providing an indispensible foundation of good health. Minerals and vitamins for instance play essential roles as coenzymes, responsible for activation of enzymes which in turn drives all metabolic processes which include the following: proper growth, digestion, energy metabolism, hormone synthesis and regulations, immune system, homeostasis, detoxication, nerve and muscle function and reproduction. Generally, minerals and vitamins can be seen to process the capacity of starting every metabolic process in the body (Mark, 1998). It therefore follows that a deficit of mineral and vitamins in ones nutritional status only ensures their function to a limited degree only and finally are no longer fulfilled at all, leading to the development of diseases . A rise in deficit is associated with a development of the illness, greater interruption of the bodily functions and lastly death as a result of nutrient deficit. An individual nutritional status also facilitates the body’s requirement in terms of energy, warmth and movement. Calories are needed to provide energy so the body functions properly however; the human energy requirements mostly rely on age, sex, height and weight and the extent of physical exercise. Apart from the necessitate emanating from physical exercise there is a minimum of energy an individual require when resting, referred to as basal metabolic rate. The energy required by the body also rely on the individual’s physiology i.e. pregnant women need more energy. Mark Percival (1998) on his work, optimal nutrition argues that proper nutrition is particularly significant for the period of pregnancy to fulfill the vital nutritional requirements of the fetus and the mother. Apart from energy foods, increased quantities of calcium, iron, vitamins A, C, D, and the B vitamins are needed to meet these demands. Diet plays a significant role in influencing blood lipids, blood pressure and glucose tolerance (William, 1988). On the other hand, taking the right food and nutrients like calorie-containing nutrients ensures maintenance of the basal metabolic rate. Proteins, carbohydrates and lipids supply their particular share in this process depending on the quantity of consumption correspondingly. The comparative share of calorie-containing nutrients in energy production matches with their quantity of consumption. However, excessive intake of lipids leads to storage of lipids in the adipose tissue. In addition, surplus amounts of carbohydrates resulting from too much consumption are as well converted into lipids which are in the end stored in the adipose tissue. High fat consumption can raise the levels of cytotoxic free fatty acids or secondary bile acids in the lumen of the large intestine causing colorectal cancer. Associated diseases of poor nutrition Poor nutrition is associated with a multitude of diseases. Some of these diseases include deficiency like scurvy and kwashiorkor; health-risks situations such as obesity and metabolic syndrome while other diseases are caused by much food/nutritional substance like Diabetes II which is caused by nutritional overload of sugar and fats causing a burden to the body’s ability to convert them to usable blood sugar at a steady pace (Mark, 1998). Other chronic diseases related to poor nutrition include: heart disease, osteoporosis, and cancer are mainly associated with long-term nutrient deficiencies. Most of these diseases are linked to a diet that is high in unhealthy fats. In conclusion, it is clear that an individual nutritional status plays a crucial role in determining the occurrence of disease. However more studies are still needed to establish the exact mechanism of nutrition-disease relationship. All in all, most diseases emanate from what we eat and our eating habits. References Anthony W. (2002). Nutrition knowledge and food consumption: can nutrition knowledge change food behaviour? Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr (2002) 11(Suppl): S579–S585 Boukaiba N., Flament C, Acher S, Chappuis P, Piau A, Fusselier M, Dardenne M, Lemonnier D. (1993). A physiological amount of zinc supplementation: effects on nutritional, lipid, and thymic status in an elderly population. Am J Clin Nutr. 1993; 57:566–72. Brian L. (1994). Nutritional Treatment Of Heart Disease: CCME JON Vol. 3(3), 1994 Nweke C. O., and Okpokwasili G. 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