Attention Deficit Disorder: Symptoms, Types, Testing, and Treatment - Term Paper Example

Attention Deficit Disorder Attention Deficit Disorder Summary Attention deficit disorder is a common behavioral disorder, which is seen to affect about 8% to 10% of school-age children. Children who are affected with ADD are very hyperactive, and they have trouble focusing. When they hear someone giving them any instruction, they are able to understand these instructions, but they have trouble following then because these children are unable to sit still, pay attention or look into all the details. Attention deficit disorder can be treated with medication, counseling and alternative therapies as well. When a child is given medication to treat ADD or ADHD, the parent must monitor the child to find out if there are any side effect occurring because the medication are basically stimulants. They should also get in touch with some self-help groups of parent who are confronted with a similar situation to learn from other’s experiences on how they have handled similar situations. Attention deficit disorder should not all be taken in a negative light. There are many famous personalities who have lived with it and been successful in life. The point is learning how to live with the disorder throughout and still make the most of opportunities that come our way. An Introduction to Attention-Deficit Disorder (ADD) Attention-Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), is a neurological disorder or disorder which affects the nervous system. Attention- Deficit Disorder is also known by the following names: Attention-deficit syndrome (ADS): This means the same as Attention-Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), only the term disorder is removed. Minimal cerebral dysfunction (MCD): This means the same as ADD or ADHD, and is commonly used term to denote the disorder in the international level, but is no more used in the United States to denote ADD or ADHD. Deficits in Attention, Motor control and Perception (DAMP): This is the name given for Attention-Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) disorder, but it is used when the symptoms of ADD or ADHD is combined with dyspraxia. Dyspraxia is the term used to cover a heterogeneous range of disorders that affect the initiation, organization and performance of action. This term is recognized as the term to denote ADD or ADHD only in Denmark and Swede A person who has ADD or ADHD displays symptoms such as hyperactivity, forgetfulness, improper impulse control, and gets easily distracted. Currently, studies have classified ADD or ADHD as a chronic syndrome for which there is no medical cure available. Boys are three times more likely to get affected by ADD than girls though the reason for this phenomenon is not clearly understood. This is a conclusion which was published in an article titled ‘Differential Effect of Environmental Adversity by Gender: Rutter’s Index of Adversity in a Group of Boys and Girls With and Without ADHD’1 published in the American journal of psychiatry, wherein the author stated that boys were more vulnerable to the disorder than girls. According to the mental health journal ‘An attention-deficit disorder (ADD) is a developmental disorder characterized by developmentally inappropriate degrees of inattention, over activity, and impulsivity. Symptoms are neurologically-based, arise in early childhood, and are chronic in nature in most cases. Symptoms are not due to gross neurological impairment, sensory impairment, language or motor impairment, mental retardation, or emotional disturbance’. There is one school of thought which states that the cause of ADD or ADHD is psychological. There is another school of though which states that the cause of ADD or ADHD is biological. This disorder is treated using a combination of methods such as medication, psychotherapy and other techniques. There are people who come out of this problem and can take control over their lives without the use of medication. There are also people who live with the problem without getting any form of treatment because the disorder does not affect their daily life routine. It is children who are most often diagnosed as having ADD or ADHD. This problem has also been diagnosed as adults, and studies have shows that about 60 percent of children who have been diagnosed with ADD or ADHD in their childhood retain the problem with them as they grow into adults. The article ‘Use of Self-Ratings in the Assessment of Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Adults2’ published in the American Journal of psychiatry, what is concluded about adult diagnosis of ADD or ADHD is that the diagnosis of ADHD in adults relies on an accurate recall of childhood behavior and an accurate account of current behavior. The results of this study suggest that adults can give a true account of their childhood and current symptoms of ADHD. A look at the symptoms of ADD or ADHD Attention-Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is seen in the form of certain symptoms, typical to this disorder. The main symptoms of ADD or ADHD are inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Hyperactivity – A hyperactive child is a child that’s always moving about. Such children are seen to talk constantly or play with whatever they can reach out for and find it very difficult to sit still. They keep squirming and fidget in their seats or roam about in their rooms. As adults they are seen to be every restless and try to do many things at the same time and feel the need to be busy always. Impulsivity – Children who are impulsive are unable to think before they act. They display their emotions without any restraint and do not think of the consequences of their actions before they act. As adults, they are seen to react impulsively and in the impulse of the moment, they may choose to do tasks for the immediate satisfaction of doing them, but which do not yield any rewards in the long run. Inattention – An inattentive child has difficulty in keeping things in mind. They get easily bored with the task they have to do, but when they get to do something they like very much, they have no problem paying attention. Their main difficulty lies in giving deliberate, conscious attention to organizing and completing a task or learning something new. Homework is an ordeal as when it is done, the child does it full of errors. Other areas of problems in carrying out school work include forgetting to bring a book home, or bringing a book which is the wrong one. The symptoms of ADD or ADHD occur during childhood. It begins with symptoms of impulsiveness and hyperactivity occurring followed by the signs of inattention. Take the case of a mother with two children – a daughter and a son. Her son was always a handful for her. She just attributed this behavior to him being a boy. Even when he was just two years old, he would simply tear through the house like a tornado, shouting, roughhousing, and climbing the furniture. He could not keep his mind on an activity or play with one toy for more than a few minutes. He would simply dart off without warning, seemingly unaware of the dangers of a busy street or a crowded mall. This problem continued till he reached eight years of age when finally his teacher had suggested evaluating him for ADD, when this was done, it was established that the child did indeed have add. While the impulsive child is seen just as a discipline problem, the child who is passive or sluggish may be viewed as an unmotivated child. In both these situations, the children are actually suffering from Attention-Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). ADD is usually noticed only when a child's hyperactivity, distractibility, poor concentration, or impulsivity begin to affect performance in school, social relationships with other children, or they show behavior at home. Since it has been noticed that many children who appear normal also have this problem, but at a lower level, it is very important to carry out a thorough examination and get an appropriate diagnosis of the problem done by a well-qualified professional. This is the one sure way of confirming that a child indeed has the problem. Causes of ADD or ADHD There are many theories about the cause for ADD or ADHD. When a parent is confronted with this situation in their child, they ask themselves “What went wrong?" or "Did I do something to cause such a problem in my child?". Reality is that the cause of ADD or ADHD is not because of purely social factors or child-rearing methods. The causes are rooted in neurobiology and genetics. Following is a brief look into the possible causes of ADD or ADHD: Environmental Causes: Studies have shown that there is a correlation between, the use of cigarettes and alcohol during pregnancy and the chances of a child getting ADD or ADHD, when the mother takes alcohol or cigarettes. In the article entitles ‘Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms in Offspring’3 published in the American Journal of Psychology, the study to examine whether smoking during pregnancy is associated with symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the unborn child and whether these effects are additional to genetic influences resulted in a positive find. Genetic influences does account ADD or ADHD, but maternal smoking during pregnancy had a more profound effect and appears to show an association with offspring ADHD symptoms that is additional to the effects of genes. This effect cannot be attributed to shared rater effects, clinical referral biases, or co-variation with antisocial behavior. Therefore, it is best during pregnancy to refrain from both cigarette and alcohol use. Exposure to lead is also seen as a risk of getting ADD or ADHD. Injury to the Brain: There have been instances of a child who has suffered accidents leading to brain, showing the symptoms of ADD or ADHD. On the whole, only a small percentage of children with ADHD have been found to have suffered a traumatic brain injury. Food Additives and Sugar: There is a suggestion that ADD or ADHD can be caused by refined sugar or food additives, or that its symptoms of are magnified by sugar or food additives. There is also contradictory evidence on this point, but nevertheless it cannot be totally ruled out. Genetics: ADD or ADHD can be caused by the problem running in a family. Studies indicate that 25 percent of the close relatives in the families of ADHD children also have ADHD, whereas the rate is about 5 percent in the general population. Since its inception in 1999, the Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Molecular Genetics Network has served as a way for researchers to share findings regarding possible genetic influences on ADHD. In an article title ‘The Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder as Measured by the Conners’4 Rating Scale, published in the American journal of psychology, the results of the genetic analyses show that ADHD is predominantly influenced by genetic factors that are both dominant and additive. Other Causes of ADHD: Knowledge of the structure of the brain is used by scientists to understand the physical basis for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. One part of the brain that scientists have focused on in their research is the frontal lobes of the cerebrum. The frontal lobes enable a person to solve problems, plan beforehand, understand the behavior of others, and also help to control impulses. The two frontal lobes, the right and the left, communicate with each other through the corpus callosum, which are nerve fibers that connect the two frontal lobes. The basal ganglia are the interconnected gray masses deep in the cerebral hemisphere that serve as the connection between the cerebrum and the cerebellum All of these parts of the brain have been studied using methods which include functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) positron emission tomography (PET), and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), to find the connection between the structure of the brain and a person who has ADD or ADHD. In a study on the ADHD children, results showed children with ADD or ADHD, had 3-4 percent smaller brain volumes in all regions such as the frontal lobes, temporal gray matter, caudate nucleus, and cerebellum than in children who did not have ADD or ADHD. Diagnosis of ADD or ADHD Attention-Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), is diagnosed using several methods. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have put forth that a diagnosis of ADHD should only be made by trained health care providers. This is because the symptoms of ADD or ADHD may also be part of other conditions, for example like bodily illness or other physical disorders, such as hyperthyroidism. Also, physically and mentally nonpathological individuals may also show at least some of the symptoms from time to time. If the diagnosis of ADD or ADHD has to be a positive one, the severity and pervasiveness of the symptoms must be established. Following is a list of ways used to diagnose ADD or ADHD. Clinical Testing: In clinical testing, there are certain criteria which must be fulfilled for the testing to b carried out. Use of an ADHD-specific instrument such as the Conners Scale helps to satisfy the criteria of the existence of the condition. The second criteria states that information about the child’s symptoms must be obtained from more than one setting. The third criteria states that there must be a look into for other coexisting conditions, which may make the diagnosis more difficult or complicate treatment planning and this is possible by using intelligence and psychological testing. Analytical Testing: Analytical testing is where a diagnosis is made depending on the observations and opinions of those who are close to the patient. Many patients even analyze themselves as they approach adulthood, and come out with the fact that they have this problem. This is because though the American Academy of Pediatrics Clinical Practice has published guidelines to help health care providers to make an objective diagnosis, there is still doubt as to whether these guidelines can do this on part of patients, as well as providers. Other diagnostic methods, such as those involving magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), may be used to detect the presence of ADD or ADHD by analyzing images of the patient's brain. This however is not recommended because such methods are able to detect only differences between groups with ADHD and groups without ADHD, not bring out the problem in a single individual. There is a hope that someday methods such as FMRI, or SPECT will be able to provide a more objective diagnosis. Computerized tests which judge a person’s attention level are not especially helpful in gaining insight as to whether a person has this disorder because people with ADD or ADHD can pass these tests 35% of the time and these tests also go not bring out, if these people face actual behavioral problems at their home or school, and are not especially helpful in determining treatments. Steps to take before getting treatment When a parent suspects that his or her child has Attention-Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), they need to take the right steps to understand and deal with their child’s disorder. One of the first most important steps to take when a parent feels that his or her child may have ADD is to get a diagnosis done from an expert. It is necessary to find someone who is a specialist in treating ADD or ADHD because, most mental health professionals are not very aware of the specifics of this problem and do not know much, even if they tell you that they can handle it. After finding a well qualified expert to look into the child’s problem, the next most important thing to do is to listen to their suggestions and follow their recommendations. This is required because certain emotional conditions that could also be causing ADD ADHD, such as the behavioral symptoms must be ruled out through the techniques taught by the expert. Finally a parent needs to get counseling on how to deal with the ADD or ADHD. Joining groups in which parent have learnt to deal with this problem in their child is very useful because such experiences and accounts from others, provide helpful and useful insights. This is also aid the parent when looking into the different aspects of treatment for ADD or ADHD and judging which course is the best for their child. Treatment for ADD or ADHD There are many options available to treat people diagnosed with ADHD and these include variety of medications, behavior modification, and educational interventions. Medication: Mediations given to patients with ADHD are in the form of stimulants. These stimulants work by stimulating those areas of the brain which are responsible for focus, attention, and impulse control. Medication usually prescribed includes Methylphenidate (better known by the names Ritalin and Concerta), Amphetamines (Adderall) and dextroamphetamines (Dexedrine). In the article ‘The Effects of Methylphenidate on Neural Systems of Attention in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder’5, published in the American Journal of Physhiatry, ADHD is associated with abnormal processing in attentional networks, with specific dysfunction in striatal circuitry. When a person with this disorder is given Methylphenidate, its acts to normalize activity within this network. There are also several non-stimulant medications that are used either by themselves or in conjunction with the stimulants. Most prominent among these are Bupropion (Wellbutrin) and Atomoxetine (Strattera). Alternative treatments: Alternative treatment given in the form of homeopathic treatment has also been used to treat people with ADD or ADHD, but few or no credible scientific studies support these suggested interventions. Nutrition: There are suggestions which state that diet modification may play a role in the management of ADHD. The best known of the dietary alternatives is the Feingold diet which involves removing salicylates, artificial colors and flavors, and certain synthetic preservatives from children's diets. In the 1980s vitamin B6 was promoted as a helpful remedy for children with learning difficulties including inattentiveness. Later, zinc and multivitamins have been promoted as cures, and currently the addition of certain fatty acids such as omega-3 has been proposed as beneficial. Some people with ADHD, taking mild stimulants such as caffeine and theobromine have similar effects to the more powerful drugs commonly used in treating the disorder. Herbal supplements such as ginkgo biloba are also sometimes cited. There is some empirical data suggesting caffeine can improve the function of children suffering from ADHD. Other forms of treatment: This includes using light and sound stimulation to guide and change brainwave patterns. This is not a safe form of treatment for hose suffering from photosensitive epilepsy due to the risk of triggering a seizure. Treatment through coaching: Treatment for ADD is also provided through counseling or a coaching program. This is a program where coaches work with people suffering from ADHD or ADD to help them prioritize, organize, and develop life skills. The purpose of such coaching is to help clients to be more realistic in setting goals for themselves by learning about their individual challenges and gifts. Whatever be the course of treatment, what is equally important for a parent to understand are the associated costs of giving treatment. Looking into the cost-effectiveness of treating add or ADHD, its been found that medical management treatment (though not as effective as combined medical management and behavioral treatment), is more cost-effective when taken as a routine treatment for children with ADHD. In the article ‘Cost-Effectiveness of ADHD Treatments: Findings From the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children With ADHD’6, published in the American Journal of Psychology, Five hundred seventy-nine children with ADHD, ages 7 to 9.9, were assigned to 14 months of medication management, behavioral treatment, both combined, or community care. It was found that medication management was the least expensive of treatments, followed by behavioral treatment, and then combined treatment. Lower costs of medication treatment were found in the community care group, because the treatment given here were less intensive and less effective. A look into the side effects of taking medication when treating ADD There are many stimulant medication used in the treatment of ADD or ADHD. The most common ones include methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), dextroamphetamine (Adderall, Dexedrine)., which are also known to give off side effects. Some side effects that can appear for the first few weeks after taking medication, do not really require a person to consult their doctor and these include Loss of appetite, Headache, Stomach upset or nausea, Weight Loss and sleeping problems. It is only when these conditions persist for more than a few weeks that a person should contact their doctor. There are however conditions which can occur after taking the stimulants, for which the doctor should be consulted immediately. These include Anxiety, nervousness and mood changes, Chest pain, irregular or fast heartbeat, Increased blood pressure, Joint pain, Skin rash, Uncontrollable tics and fever. Important aspects to note when giving medication It is never an easy task for a parent to decide that he or she will use medication when their child is diagnosed with ADD or ADHD. This is because the medications given as treatment for this disorder are stimulants, which have side effects. However, 80% of the children under medication become better after taking them. In the article titled ‘Psychotic and Manic-like Symptoms During Stimulant Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder’7 by Randal G. Ross, M.D. a child was diagnosed as having ADD or ADHD and was started on methylphenidate. After seeing a positive reaction to the drug, the dose was increased over a 2-month period to 40 mg per day. The also showed a positive response, and the only side effect noted was mild anorexia. Eight months later, at 8 years 3 months of age, after a flu-like illness, the child developed new symptoms, which included complaints of hearing voices and seeing "adults" when no one was present, a desire to "throw himself down the stairs," high levels of anxiety, tearfulness at school, an unwillingness to leave his mother’s side, and irritability. This was the result of the potential for stimulants to induce psychosis-like or manic-like symptoms. When a parent is going in for medication to treat this problem, they must keep in mind certain points. They must understand that all medications for ADD or ADHD must be prescribed by a medical doctor. Before a doctor prescribes medication he or she will look into factors such as the child’s family lifestyle and their beliefs. The doctor will also introspect into the family medical history, personal medical history of the child and the current medications and co-existing medical conditions, which the child is facing before prescribing medication. When a parent is confronted with the aspect of giving medication to the child there are several questions to be asked to the doctor. The parent should find out the difference between ADHD medications and the fully know the name of the medication being prescribed. They should collect information from the doctor on what they can expect from the medication and find out how they can track the effectiveness of the medication given to their child. Another important fact to note is how long medication to be given to the child and the foods, drinks or vitamins that should be avoided when taking medication because when combined with the medication these food, drinks and vitamins can cause side effects. They should thoroughly know the side effects of the medications prescribed so that they can immediately call the doctor if any occur after the child is given medication. Stimulant medications are considered controlled substances and so a prescription from the doctor is a must to buy them. The child must be taken for have regular visits to the doctor in order to monitor the impact of the medication given. The parent should also monitor if the given medication is working properly. The parent can make a checklist to verify if certain side effects are occurring. After starting the medication, about visits should be scheduled every 2-4 weeks until the doctor is sure that the medication is effective for the child. It is always better to start with a small dosage of the medication and then increase the dosage gradually because the medication given will affect each child Getting feedback from the child’s teacher on the effectiveness of the medication given is a good approach. They will enable the parent to know, if there are certain times of the day, when the medication does not seem to be working well or whether it lasts all day. When giving medication, what must be noted is the food that is given to the child because certain foods react differently to the medication. If the food given is high in fat content, this can slow down the absorption of Adderall XR, Metadate CD, or Ritalin LA. Giving citrus fruits can slow down the absorption of Ritalin because it contains absorbic acid. Such effect will only slow down the effect of these medications. Some doctors prefer that children do not take certain cold medications along with stimulant medication, and so if the child happens to get a cold it is better to contact the doctor, before giving over the counter cold medications. It is important to understand that the process of giving medication to a child with Attention-Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD, is one of trial and error. Therefore if the medication needs to be changed, steps should be taken to enforce this as soon as the need is felt. If a dosage has to be changed, the doctor must be consulted before the process is carried out. If there are certain negative effects in taking the dosage, then it is important to contact the doctor immediately, to avoid complications from arising. How can parents help their children who have ADD or ADHD? There are many clinicians who feel that the kind of environment a child lives in and the attachments and relationships they have when growing up, have profound effects on the child capacity for attention and self-regulatory capacities. Though there is no conclusive evidence which proves that parenting methods can cause ADD or ADHD in otherwise normal children, there are many clinicians who believe this is a factor causing ADD. Parents can help their children suffering with DD or ADHD in the following ways: Look into the positive traits that your child possesses: This can be done by listing the good aspects of your child’s behavior. It is important to remember that though a child may be having ADD or ADHD, he or she is equally bestowed with wonderful qualities and strengths. Make a note of these qualities and celebrate them. Make ways to re-direct troublesome behaviors: Children who have ADD or ADHD, are energetic, spontaneous, and have a short attention span. Channeling such behavior with small words such as Remember, we're getting ready for school or Remember you have to do your homework, are all often what it takes to bring the attention back. Prepare a token system to learn behaviors: Parents can create a consistent set of rewards to help their child learn and earn by good behavior. For example, you can tell your child that he or she can indulge in some favorite pastime, if they argue, cry, shout, or some other, w0hen asked to do a small chore such as clean his room, fold their clothes and so on. Providing a proper learning structure: This is critical because establishing consistent rules and schedules go a long way in helping a child to do its activities and tasks in a proper manner. Do not expect too much from the child: When you child is had ADD avoid involving too much stimulation in their life. Many people with ADHD have trouble screening out the many sights and sounds, which other people can easily ignore. Noisy places or the colorful multi-item displays used in stores may be over-stimulating for your child and may make it difficult to control her behavior. Avoid formal gatherings, shopping trips, or eating out if these are more than your child can handle. Be clear with instructions: It is important to set a set of consistent and clear rules and regulation for the child to follow.. Give only one instruction at a time and when doing so do not agitate the child. For example, if would be better to say ‘Walk, Please’, instead of ‘Don't Run’. Some children with ADHD have a hard time listening when they are trying to do something else Conclusion Although ADHD is considered to be a disorder, there are many people who consider this disorder in a neutral or positive light. There are people who states ADHD is simply a different method of learning. For example, a child without ADD or ADHD will be a process like photosynthesis, by looking into all the details of the problem, but a child with ADD or the ADHD may be staring out the window and wondering whether the process of photosynthesis still works on a cloudy day. The characteristics of ADD or ADHD that are generally viewed in a negative light can be a potential source of strength. For example, a person with ADD shows willingness to take risks. An example of this is seen in the life of David Neeleman, who is the founder of JetBlue Airways. He considers ADHD one of his greatest assets and does not take any medication for it. There has not been much research into the intellectual advantages provided by ADD or ADHD, but many professional counselors in this area state to persons diagnosed with ADHD and their families that the condition of ADD or ADHD will not necessarily block success in life. This condition may even facilitate a person to achieve great things in life because they have a sense of hyperfocus. Famous persons who are diagnosed with ADHD or suspected (but not necessarily known to have had ADHD) include Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, and former Pittsburgh Steelers Hall of Fame quarterback Terry Bradshaw. References: Russell A. Barkley, Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment. Peter R. Breggin, M.D. and Ginger Ross Breggin, The Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, The Hazards of Treating "Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder" with Methylphenidate (Ritalin) Joseph Biederman, Stephen V. Faraone, and Michael C. Monuteaux, Differential Effect of Environmental Adversity by Gender: Rutter’s Index of Adversity in a Group of Boys and Girls With and Without ADHD, Am J Psychiatry 2002 Stephen V. Faraone, Ph.D., Joseph Biederman, M.D., Thomas Spencer, M.D., Eric Mick, Sc.D., Kate Murray, B.A., Carter Petty, M.S., Joel J. Adamson, B.A. and Michael C. Monuteaux, Sc.D., Diagnosing Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Are Late Onset and Subthreshold Diagnoses Valid?, American journal of psychiatry Randal G. Ross, M.D., Psychotic and Manic-like Symptoms During Stimulant Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, American journal of psychiatry James J. McGough, M.D. and James T. McCracken, M.D., Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Moving Beyond DSM-IV, American journal of psychiatry James J. Hudziak, M.D., Eske M. Derks, B.S., Robert R. Althoff, M.D., Ph.D., David C. Rettew, M.D. and Dorret I. Boomsma, Ph.D., The Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder as Measured by the Conners’ Rating Scales, American journal of psychiatry Peter S. Jensen, M.D., Joe Albert Garcia, Ph.D., Sherry Glied, Ph.D., Maura Crowe, B.A., Mike Foster, Ph.D., Michael Schlander, M.D., M.B.A., Stephen Hinshaw, Ph.D., Benedetto Vitiello, M.D., L. Eugene Arnold, M.D., Glen Elliott, M.D., Lily Hechtman, M.D., Jeffrey H. Newcorn, M.D., William E. Pelham, Ph.D., James Swanson, Ph.D. and Karen Wells, Ph.D., Cost-Effectiveness of ADHD Treatments: Findings From the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children With ADHD, American journal of psychiatry What are some helpful parenting strategies to use with children with ADHD? Available: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Available: Read More