Experimenting with Drugs and Substance Abuse - Essay Example

ALCOHOL AND DRUGS: Important issues that may contribute to a person experimenting with drugs and then developing a problem with substance abuse Name Institution Date This essay will look at important issues that may contribute to a person experimenting with drugs and then developing a problem with substance abuse. It will explore major theories relating to substance dependence and a range of factors that lead to addictive behaviour in some people while non-addictive responses in others. Drugs are chemical substances that can be prescribed, illegal or socially acceptable and produce an effect on bodily systems and behaviours (Rassool, 2009, p.6). People use psychoactive substances to experience euphoria temporarily generated by alterations on the nervous system (Hart & Ksir, 2011, p 120; Rassool, 2009, p. 49). With time, drugs may be used to prevent the discomfort that occurs due to their absence (Rassool 2009, p. 7). In Australia, alcohol is the most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Although taken at levels of low immediate risk, some people exceed to levels resulting to alcohol-related injury which is risky to developing health problems. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (2012) records that 3.2 percent of Australian’s total disease burden and injury resulted from harmful alcohol consumption. Drinking age is as early as 14 years and includes both sexes (Wilson et al, 2010). Alcohol and drug use is more problematic for women as it is accompanied by stigma, guilt and shame and viewed as deviant behaviour by the society (Rassool, 200p, p.194). Younger, single, Australian-born and Indigenous women are more likely to abuse alcohol and drugs. Pregnant women users are at higher risks from the effects of substance use as research links drug-related diagnosis to negative birth outcomes such as low birth weight babies (AIWH, 2007; Rassool, 2009, p.195). Australia is a culturally and linguistically diverse nation indicating predisposition of diverse groups to AOD use because of the many health and social challenges they face including low unemployment, and low socioeconomic status, desire to gain acceptance, knowledge deficit in AOD, and family conflicts (Browne & Renzaho, 2010). Domestic violence is also high in the CALD population is a stress factor which can lead to AOD use or resulting from it due to its disinhibiting effects on perception and cognitions (Chan, 2005, p. 2). Stress factors are shown to relate with sensitization of some people to drug use (Robinson & Berridge, 2003, p. 38). Many people experiment with drugs that are potentially addictive but only a few develop problems with substance use (Robinson &Berridge, 2003, p.25). Worldwide, five percent of the people between the ages 15 and 64 use illegal drugs such as cocaine, heroin, amphetamines, and cannabis, but only about 0.6 percent develop drug use problems (Rassool 2009, p. 4). Unlike in first-time or occasional use, drug dependence processes are tolerance, physical dependence, and withdrawal syndrome (Hart & Ksir, 2011, p. 33). These are part of the diagnostic criteria for substance dependence (Hart & Ksir, 2011, p. 422; Rassool, 2009, p.7). Interaction of various factors including genes, hormones, past trauma as well as individualized patterns of drug exposure can determine susceptibility to sensitization leading to transition (Robinson & Berridge, 2003, p.38). Several models/theories have been coined to explain the use/misuse of alcohol and drugs by individuals. According to the moral model, a sinful person with weak morals chooses to become addicted against the established religious and social norms and it is their own willpower to change that can lead to recovery. Probable biological causes are ignored (Rassool, 2009, p.35). Thus, the model implies that non-addictive responses are possible in people with strong moral character. Biological theories postulate that mechanisms present at birth and unique to an individual can generate drug use behaviour. Some individuals inherit genetic make-up that predisposes them to alcoholism and drug abuse as noted by the genetic theory (Rassool, 2009, p.36) while those that lack these genetic factors will have non-addictive responses. Genetic loading can cause significantly higher prevalence of substance use problems in certain individuals, or groups in a population (Theories of Addiction, Chapter 3 p. 60). Disease theory maintains that addiction is brought on by a physiological or behavioural deficit or both rendering a person unable to tolerate the drug. If left untreated the disease can be progressive, incurable and fatal but the theory is insufficient in relating socio-cultural and psychological factors in compulsive substance use behaviour (Rassool, 2009, p.35). Psychological theories include ‘Freud’s’ psychoanalytical theory which relates substance use with conflicts such as unconscious death wishes, repressed sexuality within the ego leading to adaptive substance use (Rassool, 2009, p.37). People with inadequate personality issues such as low self-esteem are also more susceptible to drug use problems as explained by personality theory where personal traits and characteristics contribute to development and continuation of dependence (Rassool, 2009, p.39). Drugs are used as means to escape realities of life exemplified in peer rejection issues, parental neglect, physical and social stigmata, high achievement expectation, school failure, ego deficiencies, low coping abilities and mechanisms, and self-defeating (Theories of Addiction, p. 65). The theory implies that those with adequate personality will have non-addictive responses even if they used alcohol and drugs. Behavioural theories view the use of psychoactive substances as acquired through classical and operant conditioning. In ‘Pavlovian’s’ classical conditioning dependence is acquired in associating particular drug use with specific factors such as a past drug-taking environment although, individual differences and social factors are not accounted for (Rassool, 2009, p.37-38). In Skinners operant conditioning, learning occurs when behaviour is followed by reinforcement in which positive reinforcement fixates behaviour on pleasurable sensations while negative reinforcement is to overcome the painful symptoms of withdrawal (Rassool, 2009, p.38). An alternative argument entails the opponent process which explains how people can continue to take psychoactive substances such as heroine to addiction even if they found it unpleasant to begin with, or can still take narcotics and feel the pleasurable effect but do not become compulsive users (Cantopher, 1999, p. 28-30). Social learning theory/cognitive social learning considers both past and present cognitive processes in understanding the effects of drug and alcohol use. Adaptive/maladaptive behaviour is acquired and maintained by positive and negative reinforcement in group settings where the individual observes a role-model and gets the urge to conform (Rassool, 2009, p. 38). Drinking or drug use is done to cope with feelings of anxiety as explained by tension-reduction theory. People who are too self-aware will tend to minimize this feeling by the disinhibiting effects of psychoactive substances as explained by the self-awareness theory, while expectancy theory relates cognitive factors with the start and maintenance of substance use despite knowing the outcome of this behaviour (Rassool, 2009, p.38). The theory implies that cognitive factors in some individuals enable them to imitate positive behaviour while others pick upon the negative behaviours. Cultural model is a major factor in whether people are more prone to certain addictions as culture influences individuals’ values towards alcohol and drugs (Rassool, 2009, p.39). Socio-cultural model entail several other theories including family interaction, systems, economic and availability theories which show that behaviour is formed and maintained by ongoing demand of interpersonal systems in which an individual interacts (Rassool, 2009, p.39). Family theories relate prevalence of alcoholism in dysfunctional family settings (Hart & Ksir, 2011, p. 40). Sub-cultural theory points to identity transformation on basis of values, beliefs, and norms in a group socialization process where some people have selective interaction mechanism that determines the kind of social groups in which they are attracted (Theories of Addiction, p.70). Social control theory asserts that high degree of attachment to conventional figures of authority and institutions including teachers/school, clergy/religion, parents/family, employers/work determines reduced likelihood of breaking society’s rules and using drugs (Theories of Addiction, p. 70). Self-control theory asserts that inadequate parental socialization, exemplified by inadequate or poor parenting can lead to a lack of self-control making it a risk factor for children to indulge in drugs. Conflict theory proponents asserts that heavy users of cocaine, heroin and other hard drugs are likely to be of low socio-economic status compared to affluent society members, thus socio-economic background is a risk factor to substance dependence (Theories of Addiction, p. 79). Neurobiological impact of drugs and their ability to sensitize the brain is regulated by psychological and environmental factors (Robinson & Berridge, 2003, p.41). Bio-psychosocial theory attempts to fuse a broad range of factors from biological, psychological, and social dimensions which interact resulting in addiction thus providing a multidimensional and multi-professional approach to addiction leading to meeting holistic needs of substance users (Rassool, 2009, p. 41). It is apparent that the reason why some people start using drugs may not be the same reason why they continue with its use, and no single theory is adequate to explain substance use/misuse as a range of factors has to be considered (Rassool, 2009, p.34). These include age, gender, ethnicity, cultural background, and social environmental factors (Spooner & Hetherington, 2004, p.1) further this can vary depending with the type of drug (Rickwood et al, 2008, p. 2). One of the key factors for excessive alcohol consumption and drug use among the indigenous population is caused by the dispossession and alienation from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ land in which they were controlled by tobacco rations and prohibited from drinking alcohol (NDS 2003-09). The likelihood of polydrug use among dependents is high either to ameliorate effects or alleviate withdrawal (Rassool, 2009, p.403). The concept of dual diagnosis is common among dependent users where substance abuse and mental issues such as depression, aggressive behaviour, and poor self control occur simultaneously resulting in co-morbidity (Alvis, 1999, p.67; Rassool, 2009, p.214). Early intervention is necessary to reduce the degree of adverse effects (NIDA, 2011, p.1). Harm reduction (Rassool, 2009, p.378) should involve interventions that target all levels from individual, family, community, national, and international (Rickwood et al, 2008, p.2). Medications alone cannot resolve the addiction problem and psychosocial interventions including psychotherapy, 12-step programs (Peele, 2000, p.267) and cognitive therapy are proving to be helpful in this arena. For young people, delay in exposure to alcohol is helpful in making them approach alcohol at a mature age. Culturally sensitive services should be considered for culturally diverse groups and ethnic minorities (Rassool, 2009, p.310; UNODC, 2004, p.13). Social models in intervention engage interaction between the internal experiences of an individual and the external communities and network in which they live (Rassool, 2009, p. 366). Alcohol and tobacco widely used in Australia (AODC Australia, 2003, p.1) have been judged to be more harmful than hard drugs such as LSD and ecstasy (Morris, 2006, p. 5). Australia has embraced frameworks for harm reduction in the policy stance on drug use/misuse (Roche & Evans, 2000, p.149). National policy for substance control include the National Drug Strategy 2010-2015 which is a framework for action on alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs with the aim to establish safe and healthy communities by harm minimization at all levels. The National Drug Strategy (2003-09) highlights culturally appropriate solutions for harm reduction among Australia’s indigenous populations by taking into account their historical background, patterns of drug use and resultant poor living conditions today. The harm reduction strategy entails a holistic approach including education, awareness, increased interaction with, and empowering indigenous people, and early intervention as well as improving access to screening and targeting interventions for other special populations such as pregnant women. Priorities are put to minimize smoking among pregnant women and exposure of babies to second-hand smoke (NDS, 2011, p.11, 18). The essay has reviewed important issues that may contribute to a person developing and maintaining drug use habits while other people show non-addictive responses. Most people who are regular users of psychoactive drugs never become addicts. This can be explained by several theories which have shown that a broad range of factors contribute to substance use/misuse. Problematic drug use affects only a small amount of users hence the importance of policy in controlling the extent at which certain substances can be made available to people. References: Alcohol and Other Drugs Council of Australia. (2003). Heroin in policy positions of the Alcohol and other Drugs Council of Australia (pp. 1-14). Woden, ACT 1.6: ADCA. Alvis, H. (1999). Alcohol: Social and psychological aspects of use and abuse. In Drugs and Life (pp.57-76). Australian Bureau of statistics (2012). Alcohol consumption in Australia: A snapshot, 2007- 08 http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4832.0.55.001main+features22007- 08 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare/AIHW (2007). Statistics on drug use in Australia 2006. Cat. no. PHE 80. Canberra: AIHW. Browne, J., & Renzaho, A. (2010). Culturally and linguistically diverse communities. Prevention Research Quarterly, 13, 1-19. Cantopher, T. (1999). The philosophy of treatment of people with alcohol or drug problems and the place of psychotherapies in their care. In D. Waller & J. Mahoney (Eds.), Treatment of addition: Current issues for arts therapies (pp. 23-45). London: Routledge. Chan, C. (2005). Alcohol issues in domestic violence. Australian Domestic & Family Violence, pp. 1-16. Hart, C., & Ksir, C. (2011). Drugs, society, & human behaviour, 14th ed. New York: McGraw Hill. Morris, N. (2006). Drug ‘classes’ have little link to the dangers. In The Independent. Published 1 August, 2006. National Drug Strategy 2003-2009. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples complementary Action Plan 2003-2009. Available at http://www.nationaldrugstrategy.gov.au/internet/drugstrategy/publishing.nsf/Co ntent/545C92F95DF8C76ACA257162000DA780/$File/indigenous-summary.pdf National Drug Strategy 2010-2015. A framework for action on alcohol, tobacco and other drugs. Available at http://www.nationaldrugstrategy.gov.au/internet/drugstrategy/publishing.nsf/Content/ DB4076D49F13309FCA257854007BAF30/$File/nds2015.pdf. National Institute on Drug Abuse/NIDA. (2011). Lessons from prevention Research. Available at www.drugabuse.gov Peele, S. (2000). Is total abstinence the only choice for alcoholic? No. In R. Goldberg (Ed.), Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial issues in drugs and society (4th ed., pp. 263-270). Rassool, G. H. (2009). Alcohol and Drug Misuse: A Handbook for Students and Health Professionals. Routledge: Oxon. Rickwood, D., Magor-Blatch, L., Mattick, R., Gruenert, S., Zavrou, N., Akers, A. (2008). Substance use. A Position Statement for the Australian Psychological Society (pp.1- 10). Robinson, T., & Berridge, K. (2003). Addiction. The Annual Review of Psychology, 54: 25- 23. Roche, A., & Evans, K. (2000). Harm reduction. In G. Stokes, P. Chalk & K. Gillen (Eds.), Drugs and democracy: In search of new directions (pp. 142-162). Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. Spooner, C., & Hetherington, K. (2004). Social determinants of drug use. University of New South Wales: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, Technical Report, no. 228. Theories of Drug Use. Chapter 3. Available at http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/dl/free/0073401498/506358/Goode7_Sample_ch03.pdf United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime/UNODC. (2004). Drug abuse prevention among youth from ethnic and indigenous minorities. Available http://www.unodc.org/pdf/youthnet/handbook_ethnic_english.pdf Wilson, M, Stearne, A. Gray, D. & Saggers, S. (2010) The harmful use of alcohol amongst Indigenous Australians. Retrieved [April 29, 2013] from http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/alcoholuse_review Read More

422; Rassool, 2009, p.7). Interaction of various factors including genes, hormones, past trauma as well as individualized patterns of drug exposure can determine susceptibility to sensitization leading to transition (Robinson & Berridge, 2003, p.38). Several models/theories have been coined to explain the use/misuse of alcohol and drugs by individuals. According to the moral model, a sinful person with weak morals chooses to become addicted against the established religious and social norms and it is their own willpower to change that can lead to recovery.

Probable biological causes are ignored (Rassool, 2009, p.35). Thus, the model implies that non-addictive responses are possible in people with strong moral character. Biological theories postulate that mechanisms present at birth and unique to an individual can generate drug use behaviour. Some individuals inherit genetic make-up that predisposes them to alcoholism and drug abuse as noted by the genetic theory (Rassool, 2009, p.36) while those that lack these genetic factors will have non-addictive responses.

Genetic loading can cause significantly higher prevalence of substance use problems in certain individuals, or groups in a population (Theories of Addiction, Chapter 3 p. 60). Disease theory maintains that addiction is brought on by a physiological or behavioural deficit or both rendering a person unable to tolerate the drug. If left untreated the disease can be progressive, incurable and fatal but the theory is insufficient in relating socio-cultural and psychological factors in compulsive substance use behaviour (Rassool, 2009, p.35). Psychological theories include ‘Freud’s’ psychoanalytical theory which relates substance use with conflicts such as unconscious death wishes, repressed sexuality within the ego leading to adaptive substance use (Rassool, 2009, p.37). People with inadequate personality issues such as low self-esteem are also more susceptible to drug use problems as explained by personality theory where personal traits and characteristics contribute to development and continuation of dependence (Rassool, 2009, p.39). Drugs are used as means to escape realities of life exemplified in peer rejection issues, parental neglect, physical and social stigmata, high achievement expectation, school failure, ego deficiencies, low coping abilities and mechanisms, and self-defeating (Theories of Addiction, p. 65). The theory implies that those with adequate personality will have non-addictive responses even if they used alcohol and drugs.

Behavioural theories view the use of psychoactive substances as acquired through classical and operant conditioning. In ‘Pavlovian’s’ classical conditioning dependence is acquired in associating particular drug use with specific factors such as a past drug-taking environment although, individual differences and social factors are not accounted for (Rassool, 2009, p.37-38). In Skinners operant conditioning, learning occurs when behaviour is followed by reinforcement in which positive reinforcement fixates behaviour on pleasurable sensations while negative reinforcement is to overcome the painful symptoms of withdrawal (Rassool, 2009, p.38). An alternative argument entails the opponent process which explains how people can continue to take psychoactive substances such as heroine to addiction even if they found it unpleasant to begin with, or can still take narcotics and feel the pleasurable effect but do not become compulsive users (Cantopher, 1999, p. 28-30). Social learning theory/cognitive social learning considers both past and present cognitive processes in understanding the effects of drug and alcohol use.

Adaptive/maladaptive behaviour is acquired and maintained by positive and negative reinforcement in group settings where the individual observes a role-model and gets the urge to conform (Rassool, 2009, p. 38). Drinking or drug use is done to cope with feelings of anxiety as explained by tension-reduction theory.

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