The Borders between the Freedom of Individuality and Social Duties - Essay Example

Why Is It Sociologically Important To Acknowledge Human Nature And Human Needs The problem of relations between society and individuality remains one of the most disputable questions discussed by human sciences. The problem is regarded from various points of view, with many approaches that often are opposite to each other. Some authors insist that the society life is continuous pressure that causes stresses to the personality. It is rather hard to define the borders between the freedom of individuality and social duties. Social studies pay much attention to the needs of the personality, because these are the needs that are considered to be essential factor motivating human's behaviour, and thus determining interrelations within the society. Society also has a range of specific needs. One of them is, for example, a need for collective notion of order, the other is the need for a set of definite regulations that should be understood and recognized by the members of the society. A world that is obeyed to definite ruled is easy to predict, so the core of the society lies in the behaviour of its members. One more essential need is a need for unity among social actors, another is the need for their desire to carry out their social duties and give up something for the benefit of the community. Society also needs that all the members correlate their actions with the activity of the society in general. Thus, human motivation and actions transform into the goals and mechanisms of the society functioning, so observation of the human needs and interests is extremely valuable for the successful functioning of the society in general. (On the Needs of Self and Society) Before describing various approaches that observe the structure and division of the human needs, it is necessary to give the definition of the term "need". Henry Murray in his book Explorations in Personality (1938) gave a definition that is considered to be one of the most fine and detailed. This definition is as follows: A need is a construct (a convenient fiction or hypothetical concept) which stands for a force (the physiological-chemical nature of which is unknown) in the brain area, a force which organizes perception, apperception, intellection, conation, and action in such a way as to transform in a certain direction an existing, unsatisfying situation. A need is sometimes invoked by internal processes of a certain kind (viscerogenic, endocrinogenic, halamicogenic) arising in the course of vital sequences, but, more often (when in a state of readiness) by the occurrence of a few commonly effective press (or by anticipatory images of such a press). Thus it manifests itself by leading the organism to search for, or avoid encountering, or, when encountered, to attend to and respond to certain kinds of press...Each need is normally accompanied by a particular feeling or emotion...it may be weak or intense, momentary or enduring. But usually it persists and gives rise to a certain course of overt behaviour (or fantasy) which (if the organism is competent and external opposition not insurmountable) changes the initiating circumstances in such a way as to bring about an end situation which stills (appeases or satisfies) the organism (Murray, pp.123- 4). There are several major approaches that study human needs, their structure and the motivation. As far as it isn't defined what theory is the most precise, and each of them has its supporters, it is necessary to give a brief description of the most remarkable. For instance, John Barton in 1979 gave the following list of eight human needs that he considered to be essential: The need for reaction of the people that surround the personality The need for inspiration (here he notes that the content of this need changed historically) The need for protection (for instance, desire to get rid of the fear of death) The need for social approval (social approval and recognition provide the personality with self-confidence and assures that the behaviour and person's reaction to motivation provided by the society is relevant) The need for justice (a reward that is given to a person due to his experience and wishes) The need to be reasonable (being rational attracts co-ordination) The need for meaning that derives from the social reply The need for the feeling of control (Clark, 2005) Len Doyal and Ien Cough use hierarchical structure to describe the system of human needs. They start from the most essential and proceed to less important. Their theory is shown on a figure 1. The authors define 4 points in the hierarchy of the human needs and motivation. These points are as follows: Step 1. Normative/ ethical reasoning: identifying universal goals A major difference between desire and purpose is that the purpose depends upon the preferences of a person and cultural background. The authors speak about the universal character of needs, and about the common notion that if some necessary needs are not satisfied, it will have a harmful effect. Harm is referred to as a kind of basic disablement in the person's notion of what is good for him. This feeling is something different from the individual feeling of discontent or happiness. Another kind of defining this harm is as an obstacle that spoils the process of social participation (Doyal and Gough) Step 2. Basic needs: health and autonomy Physical needs and individual autonomy are the most essential human needs that are common for any society and culture. These needs are necessary to be satisfied to provide for successful achieving the purposes that the person has chosen as success in his life. Three factors that are placed on this level of hierarchy influence personal autonomy in actions. (Doyal and Gough, pp. 55-59) Step 3. Satisfiers and 'Intermediate Needs': the role of codified knowledge (Cough, 2003, p.12) In contrast to basic personal needs concerning the health and autonomy, that are similar for all individuals, the services and goods that are necessary to satisfy these basic needs, are various for various persons. This stage includes the notion of "satisfier characteristics", which are necessary for supplying needs of a definite cultural frame. Besides, there is also a set of "universal satisfier characteristics", which are common for all the cultures. They include the characteristics of goods and services that will provide for satisfying needs in all cultural schemes. Step 4. Societal preconditions (Cough, 2003, p.12) The authors point out four factors that are regarded by societal preconditions - manufacture, reproduction, cultural transmission and political authority. (Doyal and Gough, pp.80-90) These factors are considered to be the most essential needs that are to be satisfied for future successful functioning of the society. Abraham Maslow also used a hierarchical approach to settle down the structure of human needs. He used successful and healthy people to be a base for his theory to be built upon. This made his theory be different from the other theories studying human interests at that time, as any other theories were based upon the observation of people feeling lack of something or being unsatisfied with their lives. He divides between basic needs and meta needs. Basic needs are the needs of both physiological and psychological nature. Basic needs are those needs that are necessary for a person to feel balanced and satisfied. In case one of these needs is absent, the person will try hard to fill in the hollow. Meta needs are the needs of a higher level. They include more abstract notions, for instance, justice or beauty, etc. Maslow noted that basic needs occupy priority place. For instance, if a person is in need of food, he wouldn't seek for beauty need at that moment. (Maslow, 1943) In Maslow's list of needs basic needs occupy first four points, while meta needs are placed on 5-8 position. Here is the list of the human needs according to Maslow's theory: 8. Self-transcendence - a transegoic level that emphasizes visionary intuition, altruism, and unity consciousness. 7. Self-actualization - know exactly who you are, where you are going, and what you want to accomplish. A state of well-being. 6. Aesthetic - at peace, more curious about inner workings of all. 5. Cognitive - learning for learning alone, contribute knowledge. 4. Esteem - feeling of moving up in world, recognition, few doubts about self. 3. Belongingness and love - belong to a group, close friends to confide with. 2. Safety - feel free from immediate danger. 1. Physiological - food, water, shelter, sex. (Clark, 2005) The thesis that people are always in need of something and always seek for various purposes became the base for the theory. As the needs that are placed at the bottom of the list are the most essential, they became the motives and stimulation when one of them is not satisfied. The needs that are placed at the upper half will become stimulation factor in case all the needs of the lower level are satisfied. The needs placed lower should be satisfied to provide a person with the possibility to ascend the hierarchical structure. Being aware of personal position in this list can help in finding an effective stimulation. For instance, stimulating an individual from a middle class with the help of a certificate will be more effective, than motivating an individual from the lower level of the population, who seeks for the means that could satisfy his basic needs. It is necessary to note that the majority of people move from one level of the hierarchy to another within their life. Almost all of us try to ascend the list, while numerous outside factors press us, forcing us move down. Usually, those who are closer to top, meet various challenges that disturb reaching the top, while those who are at the bottom, are provided with small awards for further motivation. (Clark, 2005) Some of the authors observe the dynamics of the human needs development in the contradictions between various kinds of needs. Psychological review On the Needs of Selves and Societies investigates contradictory needs: 1. Need for safety is opposite to the need for danger. Individual aspiration for safety and survival are the most essential of the human needs. People often give up their freedom to possibility of reducing their fears. It isn't surprising that one of the most desired purposes of the humankind is to find out a treatment to control the death. If this need hasn't been satisfied, it results in harmful aftermath influencing the psychological condition. It is evident that after surviving in the catastrophe people often lose the feeling of security and this changes their psychological condition. However, there are many people that feel excited when risking their lives. 2. Need for regulation is opposite to the striving for chaos People are in need of regulations in their everyday life to feel patient. It is necessary that life is predictable, and human devotion to religious rituals, to traditions and customs also provides for satisfying need for order. Religions add much to supplying these needs, suggesting life purposes, values and meaning of living for people. Supplying this need also helps the society in its functioning. There are the people that are excluded from the society, that have no purposes and beliefs. They do not obey rules and do not need them. This is supposed to be abnormal, and their need for chaos is the factor that prevents normal functioning of society. 2. Need for community and need to be alone. Tending to cooperate with others is one of the main tendencies for human beings. Isolation is unnatural for human nature, and in many countries estrangement has become one of the most severe punishments. There are many medical researches that make evident that people who live alone experience more problems with their health, for instance, people who live alone, more often suffer from heart attacks. On the contrary, there were individuals that felt desire to live alone and left people communities. However, such occasions happen comparatively seldom, and the major tendency of getting together still remains inherent to human nature. 3. Need for social recognition is opposite to need for being invisible. People often forge their behavioural models basing upon the scale of recognition they receive from the environment and thus decide what they are ready to give in response. At most cases these are the women who give more attention to the people around, and these are the men who receive, rather than give. Some cases happen when people are not against being invisible. There are deviants who reside on the streets and do not care whether they are recognized by the society or not. 4. Need for control is opposite to need to be controlled The importance of rules and regulations that control the personality is observed by various human societies. It has been found out that a persistent feeling of being controlled badly influences physical and mental condition of the personality. When, in addition, person feels that he cannot control his life and future, it may result in mental disorders. On the contrary, there are the people who feel necessity of being under someone's control and domination. However, such condition is regarded as unnatural and cannot provide for successful functioning of the society. (On The Needs Of Selves And Societies) 5. Need for the development is opposite to the need for self-degradation Many people agree that estimation and appreciation of their activity by the environment is a primary motivating factor that influences their behaviour and activity. Of course, common meaning and society estimation are the factors which significantly influence a person's self-confidence and self-esteem. Class nature of the society may shape the self-worth of the individuality, making evident person's superiority over other people. The theories that study deviant behaviour and the sources of antisocial personality, often agree that this is the self-esteem that often affects the behavioural models of the individual. Human sciences are also focused upon the problem of precarious self esteem that is easily affected by the surroundings. Stresses and tempo of the modern life often make people suffer from inferiority complex, when they face problems in various spheres of life and these problems often seem to be insoluble. Inferiority complex may lead to further psychological problems, like depression, which are often very hard to treat. (On The Needs Of Selves And Societies) One more remarkable theory of human needs, worked out by Clayton Alderfer in 1969, includes three basic groups of needs: 1. Existence. This group includes all means that provide for physical functioning of a human organism and safety. These means supply material aspects of life only. The main source of supplying these needs is money, spent on food, dwelling, clothes, and other necessary things. 2. Relations. This group is based upon human interest and desire to establish relations with the environment and people around. At present this need is usually satisfied in the family life and job, where co-workers and relatives satisfy this need for communication. 3. Growth or development. These needs motivate person's desire to get a promotion in career, to get more prestige job or somehow show person's worth as the professional. (Clark, 2005) The author of the theory notes that some needs may motivate a person's behaviour at the same time. If a person doesn't get reward on needs of higher level, he will try to satisfy the needs of a lower scale to a larger extent. This phenomenon is defined as "frustration & shy aggression dimension." (Clark, 2005) It significantly influences person's attitude to job and career. Works Cited (1) Benton, Ted, and Craib, Ian. (2001) Philosophy of Social Science: The Philosophical Foundations of Social Thought Palgrave. Basingstoke (2) Clark, Donald. (2005) Leadership & Human Behavior. Available at www.nwlink.com/donclark/leader/leadhb.html (3) Doyal, Len, and Gough, Ian. (1991) A Theory of Human Need. London: Macmillan (4) Gough, Ian. (2003) Lists And Thresholds: Comparing The Doyal-Gough Theory Of Human Need With Nussbaum's Capabilities Approach. Wellbeing in Developing Countries ESRC Research Group. Available at http://www.welldev.org.uk/ (5) Macionis, J. J. and Plummer, K. (2002) Sociology: A Global Introduction, Harlow: Pearson (6) Maslow, Abrahams. (1943) A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396 (7) Murray, Henry. (1938) Explorations in Personality. Oxford: Oxford University Press (8) On The Needs Of Selves And Societies. A Sociological Social Psychology Needs Of Selves And Societies. Social Psychology [online]. 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