The Wide Concept of a Social Capital - Coursework Example

Social capital Introduction Social capital is a wide concept and there is no single definition of the term. However, according to most scholars social capital focuses on the social relations that have substantial benefits. The variety of definitions identified in the literature stem from the highly context specific nature of social capital and the complexity of its conceptualization and operationalization (The World Bank, 1999). This means that the particular definition settled on by any study largely depends on the particular discipline as well as the level of investigation. Considering the various frameworks for analysing social capital, there exist substantial contradictions and disagreement in the definitions of the concept. Due to the complications in defining the concept of social capital, various experts always deliberate concept, its origin as well as its variety applications and the unresolved issues or challenges before they can give their own definition of the concept. It has been proposed by some authors that a definition that is cross disciplinary would be of less importance if the researchers were to redefine as well as appreciate the definitions of other disciplines. Some scholars have acknowledged that variations in the definition of the concept are dependent on whether its focus is on the substance, its origin or its impacts (The World Bank 1999). The Social capital concept is multidimensional and it ought to be conceptualized as such in order to have an explanatory value. Other scholars see the concept as an economic term and therefore they do not take into consideration its multi-disciplinary and multi-dimension nature. The main aim of this essay is to explore the social capital concept in relation to the ways governments, organizations and communities respond to the wide range of contemporary social, economic and environmental challenges. The essay will discuss the various methodologies, which are used to measure social capital. What is Social Capital? Social capital is concerned with value of social networks, bonding similar persons as well as bridging amid diverse individuals with the norms of mutuality (The World Bank 1999). Social capital refers to how people interact with each other. Bourdieu (1983) defines social capital as the aggregate of the potential resources associated with the possession of a long lasting network of more or less established relationships of reciprocal recognition and acquaintance. According to Coleman (1994), the concept of social capital is defined by its function. Further, Coleman says that the concept is a collection of a number of entities with two features in common. The entities comprise of some facet of social structure. Additionally, they foster certain actions of persons within the structure. While term physical capital is used to denote physical objects and the term capital used to denote the properties of people, the term social capital is used to denote the relations and connections among people (Putnam, 1995). They include norms of reciprocity, social networks and the trustworthiness because of them. In this sense, the term social capital has been closely linked to civic “virtue” (Putnam, 1995). The main variance is that the concept of social capital draws consideration to the notion that civic virtue is most powerful when embedded in a sense network of reciprocal social relations (Putnam, 1995). Putnam also claims that a society full of virtuous but secluded people is certainly not rich in social capital. Social capital refers to the relations, institutions as well as the norms, which shape the quantity and quality of the social interactions of a society (The World Bank, 1999). Moreover, social capital does not only refer to the sum of organizations which reinforce a society or community but what holds the society together (The World Bank, 1999). In Australia, social, capital is perceived as a way to stem the wave of the supposed community weakening as well as the distrust linked to it. Social capital guarantees regeneration of social and economic benefits, which are because of the connectedness among the members of the community, the citizens and the governing authority, which are denoted by resilient norms of mutuality and trust. New responsibility for the markets and government, a consideration of the citizens’ roles and rights as well as the creation of state market community associations have placed social capital at the centre of the current public policy. Importance of social capital It is apparent from literature that social capital is of paramount to a wide-ranging set of socioeconomic phenomena. Most scholars have stated that irrespective of its difficulties in the definition and measurement as well as its metaphorical character, the concept of social capital has fostered vitally important theoretical debates and empirical investigations which have enhanced the reconsideration of the benefits of networks, human relations as well as the institutional forms for developmental performance and quality of life (Bullen and Onyx, 1998). Social capital upsurges the accessibility to information and reduces its cost. When individuals are continuously relate with one another and are trusting and trustworthy, there is a continuous flow of information about their day-to-day social and economic life. As a result, everyday social transactions and business become less expensive (Bullen and Onyx, 1998). This means that social capital allows communities to progress smoothly. For instance if the information is about dealing with a certain issue in their daily lives such as location of new markets for their surplus produce or how to address a certain livestock disease, social capital can be of paramount in increasing the returns from trading and agriculture. According to a research carried out in Madagascar, the agricultural traders who were better connected were found to be in a position to access information on clients’ credibility and prices and consequently higher profit margins (Bullen and Onyx, 1998). Social capital makes it possible for the group to reach collective decisions and implement collective action. People are usually in a better position if they work in collaboration other than every individual working alone. This is because when people are together, they are able to address the collective issues easily (Bullen and Onyx, 1998). It is apparent that property rights are usually developed and applied imperfectly in most communities. Working collaboratively to reach collective decisions regarding the management of common resources would be vitally important in capitalizing their use as well as yield. For instance, if the communities used local structural as well as cognitive social capital to reach an agreement on how to utilize the water or land at their disposal, it would lead to productive benefits from the land and development outcomes. The social capital networks and attitudes lessen opportunistic behaviour by members of the society. Where an individual is expected to behave in a certain way for the benefit of a community group or the community as a whole, the fear of exclusion and social pressures make the individual to yield as expected. For instance, farmers in a community can result to social capital networks to exert mutual pressures to avoid diversion of irrigation water by individuals. Moreover, in the rotating associations of savings and credit, default leads to social mechanisms that are beyond the sphere of connotation into the sanctions of the community such as peer pressure as well as social ostracism that may affect the person’s economic and social life in every aspect (Bourdieu, 1983). Additionally, social capital enhances our lot by broadening our awareness of the various ways that link our fates. Studies indicate that when individuals lack are not connected to one another, they are not in a position to test the authenticity of their ideas and opinions may it be in the formal discussions or just the give and take casual conversations (Bourdieu, 1983). Further, it has been found that with the lack of the connectedness, individuals can most probably be persuaded by their own impulses. Social capital networks also serve as for the flow of important information to enhance development and achievement of goals. In addition, improves people’s lives when it operates through the biological and psychological processes (Bourdieu, 1983). Ultimately, the associations of communities are not just but a warm vague tale of civic triumph. Social capital contributes enormously to our lives in well-documented and measurable ways. Different methodologies, which have been developed to measure "social capital" Studies indicate that social capital is hard if not impossible to be measured directly. Evidently, scholars have not reached an agreement on how social capital can be measured making this a debate in itself as to why the concept is being referred to as capital whereas there is no an actual way to measure it (The World Bank 1999). Despite the fact that it is possible for one to sense the present amount of social capital in a given association irrespective of scale and type quantitative measuring has rather proven to be difficult. Consequently, this has led to distinct metrics for varied functions. In political social capital measuring, usually you take the summation of the groups in the society. Evidently, the groups, which have high membership for instance more political parties, have a high contribution to the quantity of capital as compared to the groups with low membership. Nevertheless, the groups with low membership for instance communities are also significant in some ways (The World Bank 1999). This is because people get to join a number of groups. This has been evidenced by a carried out on 17,000 individuals of a certain community who were reported to have more than 22,000 distinct groups (The World Bank 1999). As evidenced by most studies, social capital is measured by asking the question “do you trust the others?”(The World Bank 1999). Some scholars evaluate the involvement in the voluntary civic activities or social associations. A research was carried out to determine the degree of associatively as well as the economic performance in the Tanzanians rural home (Narayan, 1999). It was found that despite the high levels of poverty, the families, which had high levels of income, participated more in collective organizations. Apparently, the social capital they collected because of this participation accrued personal benefits as well as generated collective benefits via other distinct means for instance their agricultural practices were better as compared to those of the families who did not participate. This is due to the reason that they acquired helpful information from the connectedness regarding the seeds, fertilizers, agrochemicals and new location of markets. In addition, they also got prepared to undertake more risk as their participation in a social network guaranteed them protection (Narayan, 1999). They were also in a position to influence the enhancement of public services by participating more in schools and collaborating at the municipality level. Lochner et al, (1999) have established a valid and reliable social capital, which is relatively easy to use. The perfect indicators realize that the concept of social capital could be articulated via expectations and attitudes, observed, recorded and reported activities and actions as well as through a comparison of individual interpretations on y things occurred or are anticipated to occur (Bullen and Onyx, 1998). Preferably, social capital measures ought to be based on as well as tied to the conceptual framework of the particular study. Bullen and Onyx (1998) defined the development of reliable structure. Besides there are no good indicators but some features that act as a guideline to choosing the indicators for instance: The particularity aimed at the variable to be operationalized The measurability of the variable The comprehensiveness which includes the measure of a number social features, rigor and reliability The continuity which is the capability to transpire consistently across situations in domestic state and national frameworks (Bullen and Onyx, 1998) How Social capital has been used to address poverty in Australia Social capital is vitally important for poverty reduction for a number of reasons. To begin with, the well-being of individuals is not only dependent on the ability to access the physical goods and services but the accessibility to the socio-economic goods, which are mainly obtained from an individual’s social capital stock (Hampshire and Healy, 2000; World Bank, 1999). The poor describes their lack of social capital as one of their major deprivations if given an opportunity (World Bank, 1999). Poverty isolates individuals from the available social networks to them. The government of Australia has been able to address poverty especially in Southern Australia by; Supporting the social institutions The strategies of poverty reduction in this in Australia were aimed at building social capital at the households, communities and the larger networks (Monsignor, 2006). To be successful, the government ensured that it did not ignore the macro policies of eradicating poverty. Strengthening free markets to develop social capital Australian government and the organizations in support of the community in the country, aided the funding for public funds to enhance and develop formal market settings (Monsignor, 2006). This comprised of supporting the flow of information, development of grades as well as standards and the general inspection of the services to enhance consumer safety. Additionally, the government ensured that they increased the participation of the poor in markets through research on products on demand which they can produce (Monsignor, 2006). Utilize the benefits of family networks. Moreover, the government fostered amplified access of family institutions to professional support and credit (Monsignor, 2006). They also extended significant efforts to offer training as well as access to the single-parent families on terms they can afford. Empowering local networks The government of Australia also created public settings with the help of community social workers in a number of communities whereby the members of the communities were able to identify their pressing issues (Quiggan, 2001; Monsignor, 2006). They also provided the resources that the community members used to achieve their goals for instance offering education and training. Basically, social capital at the community level in Australia greatly influenced poverty by ensuring that the services of the government are effective, facilitated the flow of vital information for growth. It also enabled various groups to pool their resources together as well as manage property collaboratively and providing credit to people who had been locked out of the formal financial institutions (Monsignor, 2006). Conclusion The paper has begun with an introduction to social capital which has been denoted as a concept which is hard to define. However, according to most scholars social capital focuses on the social relations that have substantial benefits. It has been defined as the relations, institutions as well as the norms, which shape the quantity and quality of the social interactions of a society. Discussed in the essay also are the benefits of social capital which include enabling collective action, enhancing accessibility to information for development and attainment of goals and enhancing our lot by broadening our awareness of the various ways that link our fates among others. It is evident from the essay that just as is hard to define the term so is it to measure it. Nevertheless social capital is measured according to its definition. Additionally, social capital is used to address social issues as the case of poverty in Australia. In conclusion, the quality of life in a community is related to interconnecting networks that build attachment support for their organizations as well as values for their place (Monsignor, 2006). References Bourdieu, P. (1983). ‘Forms of capital’ in J. C. Richards (ed.). Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, New York: Greenwood Press. Bullen, P., & Onyx, J. (1998, March). Measuring social capital in five communities in NSW. Overview of a study with Neighbourhood and Community Centres. Retrieved from http://www.mapl.com.au/A2.htm Coleman, J. C. (1990, 1994). Foundations of Social Theory, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Hampshire, A. & Healy, K. (2000, July). Social capital in practice. Paper presented to the Australian Institute of Family Studies Conference. Lochner, K., Kawachi, I. and Kennedy, B. P. (1999) ‘Social capital: a guide to its measurement’, Health and Place, No. 5, pp. 259-270. Monsignor D. C., (2006). “Social Inclusion: Reducing Poverty in South Australia” Accessed on May 10, 2012, http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:RlKa4tXfAdUJ:www.socialinclusion.sa.gov.au/files/speech_06oct_anitpoverty.pdf+&hl=en Narayan, D. (1999) Bonds and Bridges: Social capital and poverty, Word Bank, Washington DC. Putman, R. (1995). Bowling alone: America's declining social capital. Journal of Democracy, 6(1), 5–78. Quiggan, J. (2001). Using charity to cut costs. Australian Financial Review, p. 8. The World Bank (1999). 'What is Social Capital?',Accessed on May 10, 2012, PovertyNet http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/scapital/whatsc.htm Read More

Social capital refers to the relations, institutions as well as the norms, which shape the quantity and quality of the social interactions of a society (The World Bank, 1999). Moreover, social capital does not only refer to the sum of organizations which reinforce a society or community but what holds the society together (The World Bank, 1999). In Australia, social, capital is perceived as a way to stem the wave of the supposed community weakening as well as the distrust linked to it. Social capital guarantees regeneration of social and economic benefits, which are because of the connectedness among the members of the community, the citizens and the governing authority, which are denoted by resilient norms of mutuality and trust.

New responsibility for the markets and government, a consideration of the citizens’ roles and rights as well as the creation of state market community associations have placed social capital at the centre of the current public policy. Importance of social capital It is apparent from literature that social capital is of paramount to a wide-ranging set of socioeconomic phenomena. Most scholars have stated that irrespective of its difficulties in the definition and measurement as well as its metaphorical character, the concept of social capital has fostered vitally important theoretical debates and empirical investigations which have enhanced the reconsideration of the benefits of networks, human relations as well as the institutional forms for developmental performance and quality of life (Bullen and Onyx, 1998).

Social capital upsurges the accessibility to information and reduces its cost. When individuals are continuously relate with one another and are trusting and trustworthy, there is a continuous flow of information about their day-to-day social and economic life. As a result, everyday social transactions and business become less expensive (Bullen and Onyx, 1998). This means that social capital allows communities to progress smoothly. For instance if the information is about dealing with a certain issue in their daily lives such as location of new markets for their surplus produce or how to address a certain livestock disease, social capital can be of paramount in increasing the returns from trading and agriculture.

According to a research carried out in Madagascar, the agricultural traders who were better connected were found to be in a position to access information on clients’ credibility and prices and consequently higher profit margins (Bullen and Onyx, 1998). Social capital makes it possible for the group to reach collective decisions and implement collective action. People are usually in a better position if they work in collaboration other than every individual working alone. This is because when people are together, they are able to address the collective issues easily (Bullen and Onyx, 1998).

It is apparent that property rights are usually developed and applied imperfectly in most communities. Working collaboratively to reach collective decisions regarding the management of common resources would be vitally important in capitalizing their use as well as yield. For instance, if the communities used local structural as well as cognitive social capital to reach an agreement on how to utilize the water or land at their disposal, it would lead to productive benefits from the land and development outcomes.

The social capital networks and attitudes lessen opportunistic behaviour by members of the society. Where an individual is expected to behave in a certain way for the benefit of a community group or the community as a whole, the fear of exclusion and social pressures make the individual to yield as expected. For instance, farmers in a community can result to social capital networks to exert mutual pressures to avoid diversion of irrigation water by individuals. Moreover, in the rotating associations of savings and credit, default leads to social mechanisms that are beyond the sphere of connotation into the sanctions of the community such as peer pressure as well as social ostracism that may affect the person’s economic and social life in every aspect (Bourdieu, 1983).

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