Teaching Spoken Language - Literature review Example

Teaching Spoken Language Literature Review Article 4 – Current Perspectives on Teaching World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca Brief Summary of Key Points The article Current Perspectives on Teaching World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca by seems to focus in the implications of these terms or phrases for TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) . Specifically, it is interested in measuring the extent of influence of these terms to English language teachers, linguist, and second language acquisition researchers. The author of the article investigated the developments in WEs or World Englishes and ELF for English as a Lingua Franca during the last 15 years in order to determine the role and implications of both terms in English language teaching. Some of the most important points in this article include different interpretation of WEs role in relation to English varieties used around the world, the belief that ELF is an alternative term for EIL, ELF alleged association with W (S) SE, and ELF advocacy of monocentric views. Critical Review The inquiry about WEs was prompted by the controversies in the phrase “World Englishes” that according to Bolton (2004) as cited in interpretations can be either a phrase representing all variety of English (i.e World English, International English, and Global English) and associated practices around the world or referring to English (nativised or indigenised English) found in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean. Third, the phrase may be referring to study of English using the Kachruvian approach or the philosophy emphasising the importance of inclusivity and plucentricity in approaches in English language teaching. However, the phrase World Englishes according to is best described as a cover term that highlights the diversity and world-distribution of English language varieties. This is because the English language is a heterogeneous and linguistically fascinating group of first, second and foreign language varieties including those that are involved in the study and teaching of English varieties around the world. The so called “outer circle” of English is near-synonymous term to New Englishes and include the “expanding circle“ or the emerging varieties of English such as Japanese English. The term World Englishes is therefore a cover term for English varieties, inclusivity and plucentricity in English language teaching. In contrast, ELF or English as Lingua Franca (a language that is used among people who speak various languages) is experiencing the impact of the confusion created by the term English as an international language that according to is being use an alternative for ELF. Another is the advent of World Standard (Spoken) English or W(S)SE, a monolithic form of English that many scholars believed is developing on its own and similar to single monochrome standard form developed by Quirk in 1985 . The single monochrome standard form carries Quirk’s notion of standardised international English that according to is one of the early debates in the use of international English. In fact, this standardised notion of international English received Another problem in ELF presented by the article is the actuality that some WEs scholars recognized ELF as EIL and criticise ELF adversary of locally based pluricentric English form and advocates of American or British based monocentric English . However, contrary to this belief is the fact that most ELF researchers recognised ELF as contact language exclusive to non-mother tongue speakers. Moreover, there is no such thing as completely identical English but familiarity and readiness to use forms that are commonly used and understandable to all English speaking groups . Study of English language trends in Asian countries suggest that English is a ”de facto lingua franca” and was adapted in Bangkok without any debate . Article 5 - English as Lingua Franca from the classroom to the classroom Brief of Summary of Key Points Many speakers of different first language according to used English as another language for communication or English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). However, although ELF is now a major field of study, its implications for the ELT classroom still draws concern particularly in issues concerning use of ELF by native English speakers, people from Li English country, post-colonial English country or those where English is not Li and recognised as official language. Key points of this article include the argument that all users of English can be a user of ELF; people from Li English country do not control ELF linguistic agenda. Native English Speakers or NES is a small minority of those who use English for intercultural communication, NES must. adjust their habitual reception and production during ELF interactions, students effectively use their versions of English in or outside the classroom, students often prioritised communication efficiency over ENL accuracy . Critical Review Evidence presented by suggest that English language teaching and testing practices are moving towards ENL regardless of increasing ELF use around the world. As shown by NES driven English appropriateness and correctness regardless of communication context and implications to non-NES learners. In Headway and Oxford English Grammar Course for instance, classroom models for production contained in the global ELT course books are mostly based on ENL. Moreover, regardless of course books such as New English File tentatively, Real Lives, Real Listening, and others that are more ELF-oriented, most non-NES learners are being encouraged to aim for British or North American like English . The author also cited her own experience as an EFL teacher in London in the 1980s desperately introducing near NES English into Latin American, East Asian, and European non-NES students who generally learned the rules but never use them in naturalistic conversation . Investigating further on ELF, the author found the characteristic of a typical ELF form where ELF users exploits the potential of the English language as means of regularisation and sharing of a different form of native English. Moreover, most ELF users are using their bilingual or plurilingual resources in cultural identity projection, signal solidarity with an interlocutor, and give more weight on communication compared to ENL-based accuracy . Teaching issues in lingua franca setting include those associated with production of realistic materials and teachers preparing course materials for their students. In higher education for instance, teaching materials include English by speakers in a lingua franca setting which is commonly centred on improving language teaching. Moreover, the notion of prioritizing comprehensibility is not shared by all as features critical to communicative effectiveness must be placed above comprehension . Article 6– Language and Culture Brief Summary and Key Points The article expounds the effect of diverse classrooms in policies and practices, quality of education, and teaching. Some of the key points presented include risk associated with teaching to assumed students’ identify, the need for superficial approach to cultural diversity, the complementary role of language and culture in education, classroom cultures developed through students-teachers interaction and sustained by language and discourse. Critical Review The article highlighted the role of language and culture in the quality of education acquired in diverse classrooms around the world. This in particular includes the impact of increasingly diverse classroom on policies and practices of multicultural education, diverse student population requiring culturally responsive teaching and other professional challenges . However, result of studies conducted in North American school suggest that there is a danger in teaching to assumed students’ identities thus cultural diversity in the classroom is often approached superficially and limited to appreciation of customs and food, language, and treating students as representative of their respective culture. The reason provided by is the fact that culturally diverse students in a classroom with so many different cultures, traditions, customs, and values will face tremendous pressure in developing and forming cultural identities. The role of language and culture in education according to is complementary in the sense that teaching and learning is enabled and organised around the language and culture of those who will participate. For instance, students and teachers construct classroom cultures that are sustained by language and discourse . Broad Implications for Teaching Spoken Language Communication involves comprehension and production of spoken and written language. The capacity of even native speakers to understand spoken language is not measured by subject matter familiarity but how they can process what they hear, the characteristics of spoken language in different circumstance, and the level of understanding required . However, spoken language production and helping to students to talk in foreign language such as English is the most difficult aspect of language teaching. This is because unlike written production, each speaker needs to speak, he need someone to listen to him speaking and to respond to him. Moreover, each speaker makes noise which eventually disturb others unless they are saying the same thing at the same time . The situation will likely get more complicated when teachers of spoken language deals with World Englishes or varieties of English spoken in other countries that may be difficult to understand, odd, even non-standard in the level of the host country . In relation to English as Lingua Franca or ELF, the exclusion of the native speaker as a linguistic reference norm and as a model for non-native users is considered major asset of ELF . This is because ELF communication is highly dependent on participants’ ability to negotiate meaning independent of native speaker norms. Greater tolerance towards errors in teaching spoken language in ELF setting is therefore required . Moreover, teachers of spoken language should consider the fact that people learning foreign languages are not going to pretend as native speakers thus helping them to express themselves effectively in English is more important. Similarly, aside from the shifting away from native speaker norms and intention to help people function effectively as non-native speakers, teachers of spoken language should build this competence in quick and most economical manner. More importantly, teachers of spoken language in ELF setting should not project themselves as less perfect users of English as a native language but as authoritative users of English as a Lingua Franca. Since quality of education is highly dependent on the interplay between language and culture, it is critical to account the diversity of foreign language students and apply cultural responsive spoken language teaching. Although cultural diversity approaches in education is limited to superficial treatment, treating students of spoken language as representative of the respective culture may be enough to alleviate the pressures caused by culture, tradition, customs, and values differences. More importantly, sustaining harmonious classroom cultures developed through teacher-students interaction is important thus language and discourse in the classroom must be encourage. Reflections on the implications for teaching spoken language Reflecting on the implications of World Englishes, English as Lingua Franca, and Language and Culture for teaching spoken language, it is now clear that teaching under the above settings and concept requires more tolerance and independence from native speaker norms. Moreover, teachers of spoken language should recognise the fact that the most important aspect of language teaching is not to help foreign language students become native speakers but non-native speakers capable of expressing themselves effectively using the English language. Similarly, further reflecting on the implications of ELF on spoken language teaching, it is more beneficial to consider the typical ELF form when students give more weight on communicative effectiveness than ENL-based accuracy. Moreover, teaching spoken language under this setting need to consider language learners as intercultural communicators, enthusiastic users of their English versions, and people with no intention of becoming native speakers. A more deeper reflection of the implications of issues presented in Article 4 to 6, it is beneficial to look into the key research projects and controversies associated with World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca. One is the expanding circle varieties of English such as those in the outer circle where speaker competence is dependent on inter-language continuum at some point between L1 and L2 . Another is language errors produced when English learners’ output differ from either American or British English standards. In addition, it is important to note outer circle speakers are not interested in generating norms but focus on local Englishes socio-historical development and sociocultural context . Moreover, the interlanguage approach where the goal of students learning is to be able to communicate with a native English speaker may not be relevant to spoken language classroom thus alternative strategy should be sought. This alternative may be ELF where goal of language learning is focused on adaptive and creative use of English rather than inferior version of native English . Lastly, awareness of reasons behind student reluctance to apply native English forms may be helpful in improving spoken language teaching. For instance, based on several ELF research, code switching is generally used by language learners to either cover gaps in lexical knowledge or acquire additional linguistic tool . In signalling their cultural identity, non-native speakers use expressions and make use of plurilingual resources to switch or signal identity, solidarity, and special bond to target language or culture. Article 5- Introduction: English in the Curriculum – Norms and Practices Summary In this article, English is discussed as a means through which communication is used in curricula especially in instances when English is used as an additional language i.e. English as an Additional Language (EAL). Lately, there have been increased cases of need for English Language Teaching (ELT) worldwide (Graddol, 2006 pp. 101). This was partly caused by the British colonization in the past as well as recent globalization expansion in business and industry. English in itself is learnt as a subject in learning institutions in many countries; as a language of instruction in English – medium education catering to speakers of other languages in countries where English is an official language and also as a language of schooling for linguist minorities like in the United Kingdom where it is a national language. Critical Review According to Halliday, 1975, pp. 17, language can be applied in communication for the purposes of creating interpersonal relationships among people. Through language, people are able to express their own values and views. People can also seize a particular role with regard to other participants hence enhancing good social contacts. Language can be used in various contexts. This largely depends on the possibility of something, its feasibility, appropriateness as well as performance (Hymes, 1972: 281). As put forward by Swain (1980a, 1980b), communicative competence for additional language teaching is made up of four major component competencies i.e. grammatical competence (knowledge of lexical items), strategic competence (use of spoken as well as non-spoken communication), discourse competence and also linguistic competence. Reliable research has shown that there is a complete difference between literacy events and literacy practices (Shirley, B.H., 1983:50). According to him, literacy event is an instance when a piece of writing is important to the nature of participants’ interactions and their respective interpretations. Literacy practice on the other hand deals with events and patterns of issues around literacy. Implications With regard to a majority of the contents of this article, it is almost impossible to predict beforehand what makes literacy event more meaningful (Nabi, 2009). It is also impractical to link literacy events to literacy practices. Reflections on the Implications for Teaching Spoken Language Looking at the possible implications of teaching spoken language, this article tends to suggest that in the process of teaching spoken language, several methods ought to be used. It is through the various methods such as writing, speaking as well as visual articulations that can be able to make the entire process fruitful (Nabi et al., 2009). Additionally, different technologies and formats like cinemas, textbooks and folders should be used. Teachers also mentioned (in a certain observation in London school) that examination requirements should be part of the lesson objectives in order to make the teaching more successful. References Björkman, B. 2013, English as an Academic Lingua Franca: An Investigation of Form and Communicative Effectiveness, De Gruyter. Brown, G. & Yule, G. 1983, Teaching the Spoken Language, Cambridge University Press. Grauberg, W. 1997, The Elements of Foreign Language Teaching, Multilingual Matters Limited. Hoffmann, T. & Siebers, L. 2009, World Englishes--problems, Properties and Prospects: Selected Papers from the 13th IAWE Conference, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Geneva. Hornberger, N. & McKay, P.S.L. 2010, Sociolinguistics and Language Education, Channel View Publications, UK. Jenkins, J. 2006, 'Current Perspectives on Teaching World Englishes and English as Lingua Franca', TESOL Quarterly, vol. 40, no. 1, p. 181. Jenkins, J. 2012, 'English as a Lingua Franca from the classroom to the classroom', ELT Journal, vol. 66, no. 4, p. 494. Kasper, G. & Omori, M. 2010, 'Language and Culture', in N. Hornberger & S.L. McKay (eds), Sociolinguistics and Language Education, Multilingual Matters, Bristol. Kirkpatrick, A. 2007, World Englishes Hardback with Audio CD: Implications for International Communication and English Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press. Knapp, K., Seidlhofer, B. & Widdowson, H.G. 2009, Handbook of Foreign Language Communication and Learning, Mouton de Gruyter. Sheridan, D. 2001, Teaching Secondary English: Readings and Applications, L. Erlbaum Associates. Vang, C.T. 2010, An Educational Psychology of Methods in Multicultural Education, Peter Lang. Wolf, H.G. & Polzenhagen, F. 2009, World Englishes: A Cognitive Sociolinguistic Approach, De Gruyter.  Read More