Tibetian Buddhism - Religious Identity and Rituals of Vajrayana - Literature review Example

Tibetian Buddhism – Religious Identity and Rituals of Vajrayanas “There are no religions which are false. All are true, in their own fashion, all answer, though in different ways, to given conditions of human existence” (Durkheim, 1961:15). Religion has always played an important role in binding the society and defining social relationships. Turner (2006) emphasizes its importance to sociology and refers to religion as the “processes and institutions that render the social world intelligible, and which bind individuals authoritatively into a social order” (p.284). Religion in many cases, is one of the salient features through which an individual identifies him/herself, along with others like gender, race and social-class. In order to understand the practical importance of religions in current times of multi-culturalism, one needs to study communities with predominant religious identities or with religious practices. This essay shall focus on Tibetian Buddhism and the practitioners of this religion in relation to their negotiation of identities, rituals and their struggles in exile to regain their homeland through peaceful existence. In the process, it shall try to explain and understand the underlying principles and philosophies that govern their worldview, social interactions and their religious practices. It shall conclude that Tibetian Buddhists are undergoing effective transformation from being a secluded community, to a community that is recognized for spreading the message of peace and meditation as tools to survival in the aggressive globalized world. This they achieve through reinforcing the narratives (Somers 1994) of their lives in exile and their faith and trust in their leader, the Dalai Lama, who is trying to arouse global awareness regarding their plight. Influence of Bon and Tantrism William S. Weedon has studied the eastern religion and holds the opinion that Buddhism as practiced in Tibet differs from the form practised in the rest of Asia, in that there is the “prevalence of Bon, tantric, and Saktist elements” (1967: 167). The severe conditions of Tibet with extreme cold and extreme heat make living conditions very difficult for the inhabitants. Long tracts of high mountains bare, with little or no forest cover, high velocity winds and exposure to the harsh sunlight as well as sub-zero temperatures making everyday living a struggle, and this probably made the people tough in order to survive the cruel weather. Weedon (1967) cites previous authors to state that “the severity of the country’s physical aspect” matched with the “fierce and gruesome practices of the inhabitants” (168). This was especially so because of the influence of the Bon religion which pre-dated the entry of Buddhism into Tibet. Animal sacrifice as well as human sacrifice was not uncommon, and “human bones were made into ceremonial necklaces, trumpets, and drinking cups” (168). Furthermore, there were the many ‘shamans’, goblins and demons supposedly roaming freely around the countryside, to be invoked by magicians to cast a spell on those hostile to them. Buddhism with all its peace-loving edicts and sacrificing principles was totally alien to the Bon practitioners of Tibet and Weedon (1967) remarks that the peasants were ‘awe-struck’ at the piety of the monks who shut themselves in caves meditating, shunning contact with anyone for years together, and accepting food only through slits in their cover (167). Revolt by native Bon practitioners led to incorporation of some of the Bon tenets into Tibetian Buddhism, which persist till date. In the sixteenth century, the great reformer Song Ka pa of Tibet, did this to reinstate balance between the native practitioners and the peaceful practices of Buddhism. This explains some of the rituals that have persisted in the Tibetian Buddhist practices, and also the innumerable number of demons and frightening figures that find place in their paintings and sculptures, alongside serene and calm faces of Buddhist monks and ascetics (Weedon 1967:169). Another distinguishing aspect of “Vajrayana or Tantrayana” or Tibetian Buddhism is the incorporation of Tantra or the mystical aspects and practices that have come into Mahayana Buddhism from Shaivism in India (Lieberman, Jorden and Lieberman, 2003, p. 2). It differs again from the basic tenet of Buddha or the Sakyamuni in the basic tenet of suffering and sacrifice, and attaining enlightenment after many births. Vajrayana is described as another path to attain ‘nirvana’ or enlightenment sooner, and demands the practitioner to undergo special initiation rites, with further practice of extreme meditation and penance. Scholars (Liberman, Jorden and Lieberman, 2003) hold that this form of Tibetian Bddhism is also known as “Mantrayana”, and “uses mantric formulas, incantation, ritual, and magic to achieve power over supra-mundane beings and, ultimately, to transcend the self and become one with the deity” (p. 2); though this is distinctly Tibetian, the origins are in India. Vajrayana – The Intersection of Theravada and Mahayana Theravada or Hinayana school of Buddhism is otherwise called “the narrow vehicle” and Mahayana school is called “the broad vehicle” to attain salvation. They differ in their interpretation of Buddha’s teachings and their focus; while the Theravada school stresses on one’s individual, personal practice seeking Nirvana, in the Mahayana school, the good soul, sacrifices/postpones personal attainment of salvation in order to help others cross the endless cycle of birth and death (samsara) and attain Nirvana. While in the first school of thought the supreme attainment is symbolized by the ‘arhat’ or spiritual guru who is a human being and has achieved enlightenment by his own efforts. In the second school however, the Bodhisattva, is a “spiritual hero” and can be of human, animal or divine origin and this hero guides as well as helps the ordinary mortals attain salvation (Lieberman et al 2003). The Vajrayana or Tibetian Buddhism is otherwise known as the ‘diamond vehicle’ and is the intersection of both afore mentioned schools of Buddhism. It is derived from the Mahayana school, but emphasizes on the individual’s intensity and practice of concentration and focus on the techniques taught by the spiritual leader. The practice of Yoga which is now popular in the west is derived from Tantrism (Lieberman et al, 2003) and makes use of certain physical disciplines and practices in the form of physical and breathing exercises to achieve harmony between the body and the mystical being, and transformation of the soul to rid it from the cycle of birth and death. Tantrism, therefore, holds intersecting elements of both Hinayana and Mahayana schools, with its principle based on that the duality and distinction of spirit and matter is merely an illusion; this can be transcended, and when this happens the practitioner moves into a different state of existence known as enlightenment or reaches the ultimate state of bliss (Lieberman et al, 2003: p. 2). Principles and Beliefs as Religious Identities Relevant to this study of religion as a salient definer of social relationships, and fixing of identities, Stuart Hall’s observation on identities: “Though they seem to invoke an origin in a historical past with which they continue to correspond, actually identities are about questions of using the resources of history, language and culture in the process of becoming rather than being, not ‘who we are’ or ‘where we come from’ so much as what we might become, how we might have been represented and how that bears on how we might represent ourselves. Identities are therefore constituted within, not outside representation” (Hall, 1996: 4). Furthermore, the relevance of religious identity especially comes into play when it is exposed to religious practices and principles and rituals other than its own; like for example, historically, in the case of Tibet, when Bon religion was challenged by the arrival of Buddhism and its practising monks. To cite a more recent example, the cycle has reversed for Tibetians now, with China annexing Tibet into its territory, many Tibetians including the Dalai Lama have sought asylum into other countries like India and the U. S. A. As such the hitherto secluded Tibetian Buddhism has now been exposed to other religious and cultural influences. Let us consider two themes relevant to this study of social relations; a) religious identity and 2) rituals in both these settings namely historical past and the current times of Tibetian Buddhism in exile. First in the case of history, Tibetians had been practising a way of life that was quire fierce and harsh as explicated by Weedon (1967). Their lifestyles seemed to reflect the harshness of their living conditions and the geographical location in which they lived, with survival instincts of self-preservation prompting primitive practices like animal and human sacrifices. Hence, when the rustic, hard-working, peasant-like people with little knowledge the outside existence were exposed to different philosophies and principles other than the one that they were used to – namely fear, magic, spell, demons, and goblins, it was difficult of them to accept. The emperor and the wise Buddhist monk Padhmasambava had to device methods to incorporate tenets of Bon religion into Buddhism so as to prevent total shock and repudiation of Buddhism (Berzin 2001:1). Weedon (1967) also refers to this and observes that in many practices and beliefs the date of ingression and repudiation could be clearly seen; and understandably, some of Bon these practices were continuing because of “the fact that even so great a reformer as TSong KHa Pa apparently felt that too drastic a purification of Buddhism in the XIV Century might alienate the people” (p. 169). The manner in which the simplistic people of Tibet united to preserve aspects of their religious Bon identity even while accepting Buddhism to give rise to what is called as Tibetian Buddhism reminds one of Glock’s (1964) deprivation theory, wherein five types of deprivation, economic, social, organismic, ethical, and psychic deprivation led to a particular type of religious formations, respectively: sect, church, healing movement, reform movement, or cult. Here, the reform movement seems to have occurred because the Bon Tibetians were deprived of some of their ethical and psychic beliefs and practices with the official adoption of Buddhism into Tibet. The result has been the birth of a distinct form of Buddhism, albeit incorporating tenets of other influences, different from other schools and forms practised elsewhere in the world. Thereby the Bon people have given a unique identity to the Buddhist religion practised by their people by infusing practices and beliefs identified specifically with Bon. As Hall (1996) has put it, they (the Bon people) used their resources to become practitioners of a unique religion Tibetian Buddhism or the Vajrayana, by which they are identified till date. Religious Rituals As regards the rituals that are followed by Vajrayanas or Tibetian Buddhists, they are an important part of their religious traditions and a few of them as described by Alexander Berzin (2001) discussed here: 1) Portraits of various deities figure in both Bonpo bardo and Buddhist bardo rituals. 2) The concept of ‘space harmony web,’ which is a web-like pattern formation of multi-coloured strings, symbolizing the five natural elements, namely fire, water, earth, air and space, has been taken from Bon. Although they are called as spirit-catchers, their real significance is that, one has to harmonize the external elements before working on the internal elements or karma. 3) The letter “La” stands for the Tibetan word ‘life spirit’, which is why it is used in the word ‘lama’ – who is the embodiment of life spirit. 4) Similar to the ‘life spirit’ is the ‘prosperity spirit’ which makes one’s path smooth with prosperity and wealth with its strength. The Tibetan word "yang" ‘prosperity spirit’ and also denotes the Chinese word for sheep. During the Tibetian new year of Losar, sheep's head and sheep-head shaped moulds of tsampa, are eaten to symbolize prosperity. 5) Furthermore, Buddhism has adopted some aspects of the traditional Bon healing, like sprinkling holy water with feathers in purification ceremonies. Greeting important people in Tibetian customs is done by burning Juniper leaves and branches on mountain tops. This is done till date on Dharamsala in India, to greet His Holiness the Dalai Lama, although the roads are used instead of mountains. It is done to appease the local spirits. In the modern context too, the Kalachakra or karma theory of the Tibetian Buddhists have come full cycle and the practitioners have had to adapt to living with foreign religions like Judaism and Christianity in far-away places like Chile and America, in order to keep their faith and religion alive. For this they have adapted and assimilated into various countries of the world, taking their philosophies and message of world peace and tolerance with them, and retaining their identities as the followers of a unique religion of peace and tolerance. They have opened themselves to the world outside their secluded country, and their exile has forced them to interact with the world in order to survive until they attain their goal of ‘Nirvana’ or liberation for their homeland. By practising their rituals and retaining their religious identities, and reiterating the narratives of their journey from Tibet, they repose their faith in the spiritual leader - the Dalai Lama to sustain themselves. Conclusion Religion is an important feature of sociology because it is one of the significant ways that guide the interactions of individuals in the society. Taking the example of a religious group that is not commonly found here in these parts of Australia, namely Tibetian Buddhism, this essay has tried to study and understand the importance of religion in defining social relationships. Two themes in everyday life, namely religious identity as held by principles and beliefs, and the practice of rituals and traditional customs have been discussed here with relevance to the past and the present. This study has helped in comprehending how religion equips one to face and emerge successfully through extreme difficulties and hardships, by adapting and redefining identities. References: Berzin, Alexander (2001) “Bon and Tibetian Buddhism” in The Buddhist Archives of Dr. Alexander Berzin. Retrieved on 11/07/2014 from http://www.berzinarchives.com/web/en/archives/study/comparison_buddhist_traditions/tibetan_traditions/bon_tibetan_buddhism.html Durkheim, E. (1961) The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, New York. Collier: p.15. Glock, C. Y. (1964) "The Role of Deprivation in the Origin and Evolution of Religious Groups," in Religion and Social Conflict, ed. R. Lee and M. E. Marty. New York: Oxford University Press: 24-36. Hall, Stuart (1996) “Who Needs Identity” in Questions of Cultural Identity Eds. Stuart Hall and Paul du Gay. Sage. P. 4. Lieberman, R. Marcia., Jorden, Lama Ngawang and Lieberman, Philip. (2003) “Brief Introduction to Basic Concepts of Tibetian Buddhism” in The Tibetan Buddhist Wall Paintings of Lo Monthang, and Luri Gompa, Mustang, Nepal. Retrieved on 11/07/2014 from http://library.brown.edu/cds/BuddhistTempleArt/buddhism.html Somers, M. (1994). “The narrative constitution of identity: A relational and network approach.” Theory and Society 23: 605-649. Turner, Bryan (2006) “The Sociology of Religion.” The Sage Handbook of Sociology. Sage. Pp.284-301. Weedon, S. William (1967) “Tibetan Buddhism: A Perspective” Philosophy East and West, Vol. 17, No. 1/4: pp. 167-172. University of Hawai'i Press also available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397055. Read More