Educators and Their Philosophies - Literature review Example

Educators and their Philosophies Name Institution Introduction There are many educational pioneers throughout history. These pioneers include Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Amos Cornenius, Maria Montessori, Johann Friedrich Herbart, John Dewey, Friedrich Froebel, Jean Paiget and Herbert Spencer (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). These educational pioneers provided useful insight into education. They developed theories and philosophies on schooling, teaching and curriculum development. These philosophies and theories are still in use in schools today due to their relevance in learning and teaching practice (Ballantine & Hammack, 2009).The educators argue that learning and teaching should align with human growth stages, and that learning in children occurs when they interact with objects in their daily environment. This paper presents a critical analysis of the theories and philosophies of four educators namely, Paiget, Montessori, Herbart and Froebel. The analysis will demonstrate the significance of the theories to pedagogy and curriculum practices in school, and defend the application of one educator’s philosophy to the school culture in the United Arab Emirates. i. Jean Paiget The historical context for Paiget’s philosophy was developments in psychology in twentieth-century. These developments include works by Jung, Freud and Hall. The purpose of education for Paiget was to organize education to align with the growth patterns and the development of children (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Paiget’s principles of learning and teaching were based on clinical observations on how children constructed and acted on their ideas. The principle of cognitive development was based on Paiget’s observation on how children develop intelligence (Paiget, 1952). His theory on stage learning asserted that children develop mental abilities at each stage that support their reconstruction of concepts developed at earlier stages. According to Paiget (1952), the stages of cognitive development in the stage learning theory include sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete-operational and formal-operational stages. The sensorimotor stage occurs between birth and two years when children learn to explore their environment through their senses (eyes, noses, hands and mouths). At this stage, the child does not have verbal intelligence but can learn to coordinate senses as they construct basic concepts of time space and causality. The pre-operational stage occurs from two years to seven years. Children at this stage learn to use their speech and intuition in their thinking and to understand cause-effect relationships (Paiget, 1952). They organize mental structures using symbols and signs to present experiences and idea that form their own reality (Ballantine & Hammack, 2009). The concrete-operational stage occurs from age 7 to 11 when the child develops logical and mathematical skills. The child becomes skilled at complex mental calculations, reconstructing concepts into abstract levels and exercising reasoning skills (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Lastly, the formative-operational stage occurs from age 11 to early adulthood. At this stage, the child can construct logical propositions, abstract hypotheses, cause-effect relationships and plans of action. The child can apply scientific methods to learn mechanical and linguistic processes. Paiget’s theory has been relevant to educational practice because it trains parents and teachers how children construct and create patterns. This information helps educators to develop curriculums that recognize the development stages. ii. Maria Montessori Maria Montessori was a nineteenth century philosopher who developed a system for early childhood education. Her philosophy emphasized feminism and early childhood education (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Montessori was one of the first pioneer women educators that challenged sexist stereotyping of women in professional programs. Her feminist beliefs influenced her opposition of sexist stereotypes against women and helped her defy the challenges associated with women’s education. For instance, the educator was the first woman to be graduate with a degree in medicine in Italy (Ornstein & Levine, 2006, p.110). According to the educator, the purpose of education was to help the child to develop intellectual, sensory and muscular skills within an organized environment. Montessori came to this purpose after working with children that were psychologically impaired or medically handicapped. She developed methods for treating these children with special needs and then applied the lessons to other children. Montessori’s principles of teaching involve constructing an environment that is specially prepared to incorporate activities, materials, and methods. She believed that education should harness the inner needs of children so that teachers can work with the child’s interest without prodding, punishment, or use of rewards (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Her theory underscores the child’s ability to concentrate in activities that are interesting. In addition, the theory emphasizes the development of learning structures where children can enjoy playing, spontaneous learning and performing repetitive actions until they have mastered their skills. Montessori’s approach to curriculum development involved using pre-planned materials and focusing on concepts that enhance the child’s sensory and motor skills. iii. Johann F. Herbart Herbart was a German philosophy professor who developed an educational theory based on literature and history. His theory focused on systematizing teaching and promoting moral development among children. The aim of the theory was to promote different interests of the child and to develop moral character (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). This interest refers to an individual’s focus and retention of ideas. According to Herbart’s theory, many ideas could produce many interests or form a network called apperceptive mass. The philosopher asserted that introducing children to many ideas would help them develop the network and generate many interests. On moral development, Herbart referred to literature and history as the sources of human moral values. He argued that studying the lives of other pioneers and great men in history would help learners to discover their moral values and make moral decisions. This is because literature and history provided a framework for developing moral values from a humanistic perspective. His philosophy on moral development was influential at a time when Latin and Greek dominated curriculum development. Herbart’s philosophy also made great contributions to schooling. He systematized teaching by structuring instruction into five steps: preparing material or a concept to be introduced in class, presenting the new material/concept; associating the concept with the students’ ideas; generalizing by combining current and previous teaching; and assessing application of the new concept or principle through exercises and examinations (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). iv. Friedrich Froebel Froebel was a nineteenth century philosopher that focused on developing the child’s spiritual essence in a formal learning environment. The curriculum for the educator involved stories, occupations, gifts, songs and games (Provenzo, 2009). Froebel is popular for driving the kindergarten movement. He created this movement as a school for teaching early childhood. Froebel’s idealist beliefs influenced his philosophy on spirituality. The educator focused on spirituality as he believed that every child has a spiritual essence that strives for externalization (Provenzo, 2009). He created a kindergarten to act as the educational environment where the spirituality of each child would be identified. Froebel’s nationalist beliefs were also influential in his design of the kindergarten movement (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). He believed that a society shared common spirit that is manifested in songs and stories. Froebel integrated this nationalist belief into the kindergarten setting through singing and storytelling. The educator’s history and desire to be a teacher also played an important role in his kindergarten movement. He learned at a teaching institute, participated at a teacher-training program and received mentorship from Pestalozzi. Pestalozzi’s mentorship influenced the educational methods proposed by Froebel (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). The educator used some aspects of his mentor’s method such as objects and sensation to describe the school atmosphere (Bultman, 2000). Objects had a greater symbolic meaning in that they stimulated recall in the children. Froebel was also keen on creating an emotionally secure location for children. He designed a kindergarten to provide this emotional security whilst meeting the spiritual growth of the child. Comparative Analysis a. Significance Paiget’s theory of stage learning has made significant contributions to education practice. The theory is applicable to education because it shows how children view the world differently from adults. Early childhood education teachers can apply the theory to understand the child’s readiness for learning (Paiget, 1952). Herbart’s philosophy on the systematization of teaching in schools has made significant influences on current educational practices. His methods are widely accepted across diverse teacher-education programs in countries such as Japan and the United States (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Teacher-education programs in these countries train their teachers to use the systematic order of instructions in the classroom. Montessori pioneered early childhood education and curriculum development focused on skill development. She made significant contributions such as creating concepts that allow children to work with materials that develop their cognitive, motor and sensory skills (Montessori, 2015). Froebel’s philosophy is significant to the kindergarten movement because it is applicable to the kindergarten environment and focuses on early childhood. Froebel’s approach helps kindergarten teachers to create a learning environment that incorporates storytelling, crafts, singing and play. These activities have become a standard component of early childhood education since they stimulate the imagination of the child, introduces culture folk stories and teaches cultural values for spiritual development. Montessori and Froebel’s philosophies have had significant influence on early childhood development. Froebel’s philosophy encouraged the growth of kindergarten movement on a global level. For instance, immigrants from Germany were critical in importing the kindergarten concept from Germany to the United States. English-language kindergartens were then set up and have become a critical component of America’s school system (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). b. Social Culture Paiget’s theory has made significant contributions to educational practices just like Froebel, Montessori, and Herbart. Paiget’s theory contributes to cognitive psychology and education by linking both practices to help teachers understand how children reason and learn (Paiget, 1952). Herbart’s philosophy on moral development has made significant contributions to culture. Teachers can apply the philosophy to make literature and history more relevant to modern culture (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Froebel’s approach does not focus on systematic instruction as Herbart. However, one thing that the two educators had in common was that they recognized that learning was not limited to concepts and ideas. They were also concerned with the moral or spiritual development of the child. Herbart focused on moral development of the child while Froebel’s concern was spiritual development. Froebel’s concern for spiritual growth was similar to other educators before him such as Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Comenius (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). These educators were keen on training teachers on sensitivity towards the learners’ needs and readiness rather than focusing on tasks that compelled students to learn or memorize words without understanding the meaning of those words. Montessori and Froebel focused on the natural spirituality of the child. Montessori viewed children as holding something wonderful that could change their world (Montessori, 2015). She focused on the inherent good in children and observed that there was a need to incorporate the child’s spiritual nature in the education environment. Froebel made similar observations on the spiritual nature of children. Both educators developed theories that recognized that the spiritual nature of the child have been ignored. Their educational theories respect the child’s spiritual nature and emphasize this spirituality in teacher-training programs. Montessori and Froebel’s theories have been applied in many countries. Froebel’s contribution to the kindergarten environment has been globally recognized but not to the extent of Montessori’s popularity. Montessori’s theory on early childhood development is recognized in thousands of schools in the United States. In addition, universities associated with Montessori International Society and the American Montessori Association provide Montessori training programs in the United States. These programs comply with Montessori’s use of directed learning (through directresses) and training on the use of didactic materials (Gutek, 2003). c. Curriculum Herbart’s philosophy on moral development has made significant contributions to curriculum development and culture. Teachers can apply the philosophy to make literature and history more relevant to modern culture and curriculum (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). These two aspects of moral development views and systematic teaching have made Herbart’s views quite popular. Despite this popularity, progressive educators have criticized Herbart’s philosophy on learning. Educators such as John Dewey have criticized Herbart’s theory claiming that it projects learners as passive recipients of information instead of active learners (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Herbart’s curriculum development does not focus on early childhood education. It does not address the learning needs and challenges of pre-school children that do not have the capacity to internalize concepts and ideas taught in class. His philosophy can be applied in elementary and high school as well as higher institutions of learning. Curriculum development in Froebel targets the child’s conceptual development. This is because it teaches children to manipulate objects such as clay and sticks into shapes that simulate construction and design. On curriculum development, the Montessori philosophy focuses on three activities: formal skills, practical skills and sensory skill development. Her pre-planned teaching materials encourage teachers to direct the children to use apparatus such as buttoning frames to acquire mastery of their skills (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). She also contributes to the belief that children can perform self-directed activities as they learn particular skills. Montessori’s philosophy towards educational practice also emphasized the importance of school to the community and the necessity of parental involvement in education practice. d. Pedagogy Paiget’s theory is relevant to pedagogy. It helps elementary school teachers to understand how children think and develop their learning processes. This understanding guides teachers in determining the readiness of their learners and avoid pressuring children to learn particular academic concepts. The stage-learning theory is also relevant to schooling because it promotes constructivism where teachers can perform preservice in classroom by encouraging experimentation among children, individualizing teaching to children and designing the classroom with concrete materials to stimulate the children’s manipulation and senses. Herbart’s philosophy on systematic instruction continued to gain popularity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Current pedagogy recognizes the implications of this philosophy on schooling and education. These are largely positive. Firstly, Herbart’s approach helps teachers to identify the concepts and skills they wish to introduce to the learners. The first step helps them organize their material so that each lesson has a pre-defined purpose. Secondly, his approach enables teachers to plan clear and well-structured lesson. The systematic planning suggested by Herbart ensures that teachers organize their materials and thoughts into a structured lesson. Lastly, the application aspect of Herbart’s systematic instruction enables teachers to test their learners comprehension, skills and understanding of concepts taught in the classroom (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Froebel’s philosophy is relevant to pedagogy because it teaches children to play with each other, form groups, and learn social skills. The use of objects such as cubes helps bring out the child’s consciousness and promotes symbolism (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Froebel’s philosophy is different from Montessori. This is because Froebel helps teachers understand and respect the spiritual nature of the child. His philosophy focuses on the teacher’s personality because the educator observed that the impression that children have of their kindergarten teachers exists throughout their lives. On the other hand, Montessori focuses on three activities: formal skills, practical skills, and sensory skill development. Her pre-planned teaching materials encourage teachers to direct the children to use apparatus such as buttoning frames to acquire mastery of their skills (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Froebel developed a philosophy that aimed to train teachers to be sensitive to children and to personify cultural values that can be emulated by children. Froebel’s approach makes teachers sensitive to spiritual aspects such as cultural values, role modeling, and individual personalities (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). This sensitivity also enables teachers to create a wholesome and supportive learning environment where the spiritual and knowledge needs of the child are prioritized. Moreover, Froebel’s approach helps teachers to overcome the pressure to teach academic pressure because it would be premature. The focus on symbolic objects, play, songs, and storytelling helps teachers avert pressure from adults since the needs of the child are most important (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Evaluation and Application of one Philosophy to UAE Education System The ideal philosophy that facilitates multicultural learning is Montessori. Montessori’s philosophy has a global appeal because it emphasizes the development of a child’s formal, practical, and sensory skills. Her pre-planned teaching materials encourage teachers to direct the children to use apparatus such as buttoning frames to acquire mastery of their skills (Ornstein & Levine, 2006). Montessori and Froebel’s theories seem ideal for the United Arab Emirates (UAE) have been applied in many countries. Froebel’s contribution to the kindergarten environment has been globally recognized but not to the extent of Montessori’s popularity. Montessori’s theory on early childhood development is recognized in thousands of schools in the United States. In addition, universities associated with Montessori International Society and the American Montessori Association provides Montessori training programs in the United States. These programs comply with Montessori’s use of directed learning (through directresses) and training on the use of didactic materials (Gutek, 2003). Montessori is appealing to the UAE education sector because it emphasizes the natural spirituality of the child. This philosophy regards children as holding something wonderful that could change their world (Montessori, 2015). It allows teachers to look at the inherent good in children and incorporate the child’s spiritual nature in the education environment. Montessori’s approach recognizes that the spiritual nature of the child have been ignored and designs teaching curriculums to respect the child’s spiritual nature. Montessori can be applied in the UAE curriculum by incorporating concepts that allow children to work with materials that can develop their cognitive, motor and sensory skills (Montessori, 2015). UAE teachers would need to be trained on early childhood concepts and the application of directedness. This will help children to perform self-directed activities as they learn particular skills. The community would need to accept this educational philosophy because Montessori recognizes the importance of school to the community and the relevance of parental involvement in education practice. Conclusion This paper has presented a critical analysis of four educators namely, Paiget, Montessori, Herbart and Froebel. The analysis has demonstrated that all four philosophies are significant to education practice, have influenced social culture, affect curriculum development in different ways and contributes to pedagogy. An evaluation from a multicultural aspect shows the philosophy most suitable for UAE culture is Montessori. This is because Montessori focuses on the natural spirituality of the child, emphasizes this spirituality in teacher-training programs, and has a global appeal in many countries. Universities can offer Montessori training programs and the philosophy can be integrated in early childhood curriculum by incorporating concepts that children to work with materials that can develop their cognitive, motor and sensory skills References Ballantine, J. & Hammack, F. (2009). The Sociology of Education. Canada: Pearson Prentice Hall. (Ch.9, The Educational System and the Environment). Ballantine, J. & Hammack, F. (2009). The Sociology of Education. Canada: Pearson Prentice Hall. (Ch.12, Education Systems around the world). Ballantine, J. & Hammack, F. (2009). The Sociology of Education. Canada: Pearson Prentice Hall. (Ch.13, Educational movements and reforms). Bultman, S. (2000). The Froebel gifts: The building gifts 2-6, Ages 3 and up. Grand Rapids: Michigan: Kindergarten Messenger. Gutek, G. (2003). Maria Montessori: Contributions to educational psychology. In B.J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk, Educational Psychology: A Century of Contributions (pp.171-186). 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