Energy in Buildings - Literature review Example

Energy in Buildings Literature review Introduction Studies indicate that the construction sector is among the largest consumers of commercial energy in the form heat because of burning fossil fuels directly or in the form of electricity. Evidently, buildings consume about 30 per cent of the total world’s energy use (Wood, 2007). Usually the percentage is higher in hot, dry as well as humid climates due to the great demand for cooling necessitated for the thermal comfort of the occupants of the buildings. Buildings do not only consume energy (Wood, 2007). It is also responsible for environmental pollution because of greenhouse gases emission leading to climate change. For instance, air conditioning of buildings releases a huge percentage of greenhouse as well as ozone depletion effect because of the harmful gasses emitted to the atmosphere from the refrigerants of conventional cooling systems. It is vitally important therefore to urgently review and modify the present construction practices for instance the design as well as the engineering methods of the buildings, construction, techniques and the manufacturing technology to minimize energy consumption in the buildings (Wood, 2007). This literature review has been divided into various sections to help address the issue of energy consumption within the buildings in Qatar. They include; Co2 Emissions in Qatar, Building Orientation, Thermal insulation, Building Fabric, Glazing, Shading, Daylighting, Conventional Building Design Software and Thermal Modelling Simulation Software. Co2 Emissions in Qatar It is evident that Qatar has the highest CO2 production in the world with 55.4 tonnes of CO2 per person; this is more than 10 times the global average (Wood, 2007). However, the overall carbon dioxide emissions of Qatar are comparatively modest in comparison to other high income oil producing nations. Studies indicate that out of the total world’s emissions of carbon only around 0.2 % is attributed to Qatar. In 2006, Qatar was ranked 60th for total carbon dioxide emission. The nation is disadvantaged by having a production based emission linked to it. Experts say that the emission data would significantly be minimized if the country followed a consumption based system. The country’s standing as the number-one per capita emitter of carbon dioxide in the world is partly a function of the technique of measurement as well as with its status as one of the major producers in the world (Aboulnaga et al, 2000). The carbon dioxide emissions major contributors in Qatar are manufacturing and the energy industries as well as the electricity and heat production for purification, which account for almost 90 % of the total emissions (Amato, 2012). The transportation industry contributed to around 8 % of the total emissions. Of the total emissions of the world, around 24 per cent of the production is via the construction and the building energy use. It has been revealed by the International Energy Agency publications that the present buildings in Qatar are responsible for over 40 per cent of the total global energy consumption as well as 24 per cent of the total carbon dioxide emissions in the universe (Amato, 2012). In the present a majority of the buildings in Qatar receives a Zero star rating (lowest score) based on the local Qatar Sustainability Assessment System (QSAS). The reason as to why the buildings in the Qatar region consume so much energy is for the reason that the use of standard building design packages, the overestimate of design margins as well as the poor building insulation values. Metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions In order to address the issue of carbon emissions in the buildings in Qatar, the buildings regulators and designers should apply carbon foot printing to evaluate the building and construction industry. This procedure will give a reasonable presentation of the country’s environmental impact. The consequence of this designates that the reductions of the carbon emissions are more substantial than just lessening the risk of climate change (Aboulnaga and Elsheshtawy, 2001). This represents progress in attaining sustainability and for this reason Qatar ought to seriously take the issue of reducing carbon dioxide emissions per capita particularly so that it can show its commitment to sustainability and the protection of the natural environment for future generations, which is nothing less than a serious environmental objective (Austrade, 2008). Buildings can be considered as some kind of great product that has a prolonged service life, the deposit a number of other smaller constituents, products and materials as well as products. Evidently, buildings necessitate operational energy to complement their functioning. Carbon footprint of a building is the total sum of all the products and materials that make as well as maintain a building over its life of service and the operational carbon dioxide emissions generated over its life of service (Aboulnaga and Elsheshtawy, 2001). The calculation is straight forward nowadays involving only the preparation of a QSAS submission with the assumption that the materials LCA criterion in QSAS is active (Boer,1997). Both the operational and embodied models are needed for a fundamental QSAS submission and the combination of the two models to effectively generate a building life cycle carbon footprint, which is a relatively undemanding task. Developing a benchmarking system for carbon footprint for the buildings in Qatar may catalyze the same effect upon the design teams of the clients helping the construction manufactures to attain sustainability in buildings. As indicated by a number of researchers there exists a difference amid modelling buildings and their actual performance (Austrade, 2008). However in a much contemporary study, this believe have been substantiated. If benchmarking during design intent is use collectively with the need to perform energy audits on the already completed buildings, then having benchmarking on all the sides of the provides a significant insight into the authentic efficacy of the building regulations of the energy performance as well as the casual associations between the actual performance and the design intent. These are insights that will be vitally important when planning for the future regulations as well as the economic incentives aimed at enhancing the sustainability of the built environment of Qatar. They would assist in the development of the cost to the executing of energy efficient legislation and the real carbon dioxide emissions that could be anticipated from setting explicit energy targets (Urge-Vorsatz et al, 2007). The capability to perform this kind of cost benefit calculations is another direct consequence of developing a carbon dioxide emission reduction scheme. In carrying out the assessments of the cost benefit, it is vitally important to take into consideration the opportunity cost of averting the fuel that could otherwise be saved by carrying out wide ranging conservation measures to the built environment of Qatar and later selling the saved fuels to the global oil and gas markets (Urge-Vorsatz et al, 2007). If it is found that there is a practical variance amid the profits gained from the sale of fuel to the market as well as the costs of executing conservations for energy, then there is a superior financial incentive to perform the energy conservation measures up until the benefits and marginal costs are finally balanced (Urge-Vorsatz et al, 2007). It is apparent that this could lead to a government led scheme that would retrofit the current building stock as well as the new construction with measures for energy conservation and the placement of low carbon technologies (Urge-Vorsatz et al, 2007). As a result, the non-hydrocarbon economy will be stimulated in the local based companies of Qatar (Urge-Vorsatz et al, 2007). This would make Qatar demonstrably be a sustainable nation with reduced carbon dioxide emission all courtesy of a little of carbon accounting as well as some target setting. Building Orientation The term building orientation is used to refer to the placement of a building on its location with consideration of the path of the sun. Building orientation does not result to significant energy savings (Kazim, 2007). Nevertheless, it results to the success of other strategies including daylighting, ventilation as well as shading. It ensures reductions to cooling loads by lessening the penetration of solar via the windows, reducing the absorption of solar through roofs and walls as well as by increasing the cross ventilation. Due to the latitude and the levels of insulation of the Qatar, there has been increased intensity of radiation to the west and east facing walls during summer and on the south wall during winter. As a result, this has enhanced a strong preference for the north south orientation of main facades and glazing (Kazim, 2007). It is easy to facilitate the simple window shading in Qatar due to the high solar altitude as well as the huge reflections of solar radiation from the façade because of the lesser angle of incidence. Apparently, the high levels of humidity apparent over the cooler months of March and December require orientation to match the prevailing wind directions (Givoni, 1994). Despite the fact that breezes are not parallel to a façade, the oblique wind angles that are about 30 degrees centigrade/ Celsius low to the wall could be significant for cooling when incorporated with cross ventilation to a wall on the leeward (Pears, 2005). During the internal planning of the spaces, orientation can be considered to make sure that the walls benefit greatly from the ventilation. For instance, sleeping and living spaces responding to the prevailing breezes as well as the usage of the extended party walls and vertical window blades to advance air movement by acting as wind scoops, and hence increasing air movement to the inside (Cheng and Givoni, 2005).. According to studies, building orientation offers the key driver to elevation design in high buildings. This is contrary to the contemporary common practice whereby the un-differentiated facades do not provide any significant way for the buildings to address the climate changes. The consequent inefficiencies are quite high in Qatar because of the extreme climatic conditions, which lead to remarkable heat gains (Cheng and Givoni, 2005). With the advent of the early morning low altitude and the sun in the late afternoon, if the east as well as the west facades is made opaque they could serve as buffers of thermal mass. Due to the fact that the south has the most solar exposed orientation within the northern hemisphere, it necessitates that solar access as well as glare be carefully monitored. The facades facing north normally offer an opportunity that can allow for the controlled daylighting and offer views whereas reducing solar heat gains. Some of the shading may be needed in the northern facades to deal with the afternoon sun over the summer (Givoni, 1998). Thermal insulation Thermal insulation is a term used to refer to the reduction of the transfer of heat amid objects that are in thermal contact or within the range of radioactive influence (Lina and Yuguo, 2008). The transfer of heat on the other hand is the transfer of thermal energy amid objects of varying temperatures. The means to stem heat flow is dependent on the type of the objects or the processes used to engineer the object or material (Lina and Yuguo, 2008). Thermal insulation of buildings is the most cost effective and easiest method of saving energy. As is evident from past research, buildings account for percentage of energy consumption (Henning, 2007). Much of this energy is lost through the external fabric. The long term energy performance of a building depends on the insulation integrated into its floors, roofs and walls. It is quite easy to install insulation in a building. Insulation performs for the building’s life with no need for maintenance. In an attempt to reduce carbon emissions, the buildings designers and regulators are now turning to the advanced levels of thermal insulation. It is evident that varying types of buildings have differing requirements. However, high insulation standards alone have a high influence on the carbon emissions linked to heating. This can be an overriding design parameter (Henning, 2007). According to Benoit (2012), the insulation of such elements as roof, wall as well as the floor can have significant impacts in the reduction of cooling loads within buildings in the hot and arid climates. It is necessitated that the walls be provided with the least measure of thermal resistance (R values) of R2 to R3 whereas the roofs should be provided with R5. Insulating Glass Units (IGU’s) can be used to improve the performance of glazing within buildings. The standard IGU units comprise of double panes warm air rising via the convection stored heat radiating into cooler night air of regular glass which are separated by an air space, and can achieve an R-value (which is a measure of the efficiency of insulation) of R-2 (Benoit, 2012). The triple glazed units constituting of a low emissivity glazing as well as gas filled air cavity could attain an R-value of R-5. In addition, it can attain quadruple glazed systems containing heat mirror films inside an Insulating Glass Units as well as an R value of R-12.5 (Southwall Technologies, 2009). It is believed that the power requirements of buildings can be lessened by up to 40 % by usage of thermal insulation systems, which ought to be necessary use in Qatar. Maintaining the right temperatures in buildings by heating and cooling uses a high percentage of the world’s energy consumption. Therefore there is need for the building to be well insulated so as; It can be energy efficient hence saving the owner money, which could otherwise be used for maintenance. It can provide uniform temperatures all over the space. As a result of the insulation, there is a reduced temperature gradient horizontally and vertically between the ankle and head height from the exterior walls, windows and ceilings to the inside walls. As a result, this leads to a comfortable occupant environment when outside temperatures are extremely cold or hot (Prasad et al, 2003). It can have reduced recurring expense. Insulation, unlike heating and cooling equipment is a permanent feature that does not necessitate maintenance, adjustment or upkeep. It lowers the Tripton rating of the carbon footprint generated by the house. Apparently, a majority of the thermal insulation also leads to the reduction of noise and vibration coming from the outside or the inside of the rooms within the building resulting to a conducive environment for the occupant (Benoit, 2012). Besides, the window insulation film could be used in applications of weatherization to minimize the incoming thermal radiation in summer as well as loss in winter (Prasad et al, 2003). In an industry setting, the energy has to be consumed to lower, raise or maintain the temperatures of the process fluids or objects. If insulation is not done, this heightens the energy prerequisites of a process and so the environmental and cost impact (Prasad et al, 2003). Building Fabric The building fabric is a vitally important constituent of a building as it protects the occupants of the building and regulates the interior environment of the building. The building fabric is a component that regulates the flow of energy inside and outside the building consisting of the windows, the floor slabs, the doors, roof and the doors of the building. The opportunities linked to the building fabric in a new project commence at the pre designing phase of the building. An ideal design of the building fabric plays a great role as it ensures substantial reductions heating as well as cooling loads, which will consequently permit the downsizing of mechanical equipment. Evidently, incorporating appropriate strategies through an optimal design makes it easy to pay for the extra cost of a good performance fabric with the savings that had been attained through the installation of smaller HVAC equipment (Givoni, 1992). The building fabric ought to ensure a balance of the prerequisites for the daylight and ventilation while at the same time ensuring appropriate moisture and thermal protection to the climatic conditions of that site (Givoni, 1992). The fabric design is an important component in identifying the amount of energy that a building can use in its functionality. In addition, the entire lifecycle effects as well and the energy costs linked with the generation of the varying envelope materials and their transportation vary greatly. So as to be in line with the entire building approach, the whole team responsible with design ought to incorporate the design of the fabric with other elements of designing for instance daylighting, selection of materials and the solar design strategies including air conditioning, heating and ventilation and project performance goals and electrical strategies. Climate is a major factor that affects fabric design. The condition of the climate temperate, hot or dry or the cold climates hot or humid advise varying design strategies. The specific materials and designs take the advantage of and offer resolutions for the given climate (Samarai and Qudah, 2007). Another very crucial factor in the fabric design is what happens in the interior of the building. Given that the occurrences and equipment to the interior of the building produce a substantial amount of heat, the thermal loads might mainly be from the people and equipment within the building rather than from the outside mainly the sun. Consequently this highly impact the way that the building gains or losses the heat (Samarai and Qudah, 2007). Additionally, the requirements and the efficacy of the building fabric are also affected by the building configuration. Therefore, an intensive study is needed so as to attain a building footprint as well as orientation that will effectively work with the building fabric to capitalize the energy benefit. Ultimately, the new constructions and buildings ought to attain some energy performance standards. The energy performance standards can further be enhanced by taking into consideration the energy efficiency at all the stages of the process of design (Givoni,1994). Moreover, there exists opportunities to improve the fabric of the current buildings to decrease heat loss and as a result save energy. Some of the enhancements are quite easy and inexpensive to attain and they can be prioritized first to start making savings immediately. However, others are expensive and they can be carried out in the refurbishment of the project. Glazing The heat gain via big areas of glazing could be alleviated by external shading as well as through the usage of heat insulated and the solar control glazing. Nevertheless, this will result to glazing with high levels of reflectivity (Steemers, 1989). As a result of this, there could be unwanted impacts transmitting heat loads and extra solar radiation to the urban environment and the buildings. There are other strategies that are beyond the common practice of low-e (insulating) glazing for reducing heat transmittance through glazing which include innovative glazing technologies for instance; Aerogels glazing: This is a super low density solid which feature reduced U value (a measure of the effective conduction of heat of an element) that was created by NASA and are readily available in the market in the Qatar commercial market (Steemers, 1989). Vacuum glazing: This comprises of two sheets of glass, which are separated by a thin space without air. Glazing is usually treated with low emittance coating offering the same low U values as those aerogels (Prassard et al, 1992). Electrochromic glazing: This kind of glazing offers a variable tint that can easily be controlled by a building management system or the user to lessen the solar gains. Clearly, the cooling loads could be lessened by up to 26 % (Steemers, 1989). Despite this fact the outstanding technical issues and user acceptance has acted as a barrier to the entry to the market up to date. Photovoltaic facades: This comprises of silicon wafer cells incorporated in glazed panels, which provide some shading potential. Though the facades re-radiate heat to the inside of the building, it is estimated that they offer a net energy gain over air conditioning loads covering about 40 % of the façade (Steemers, 1989). Research has revealed that these types of glazing offer significant advancements to solar controls as well as daylighting features to the tall buildings in Qatar when compared to solar control as well as low –e glazing which are the industry standard presently (Tsangrassoulis et al, 1996; Prassard et al, 1992). Besides reducing, the cooling loads could include introverting the glazed walls in the sky gardens as in the case of the National Commercial Bank of Jeddah. Moreover, outer screens could be used to shade the glazing. The use of orientation as the main strategy gives the implication that facades should be made different to match the varying solar as well as ventilation features of every elevation. Shading Shading is a vitally important strategy for buildings especially in hot climates (Kensek et al, 1996). It is apparent that the high performance windows are not in a position to meet the energy performance of a wall that is insulated and hence the need to have shading devices to prevent direct solar radiations from buildings (Santamouris et al, 2007). Within the hot and arid regions, shading of windows is of paramount due to the high levels of solar radiation a compared to other types of climate (Kensek et al, 1996). Usually, this is highly exaggerated in the cities whereby the solar radiation is replicated by the roof and wall surfaces of the nearby buildings as well as where the long wave emission form the ground is heightened as a result of lack of vegetation and the light desert colour. The architectural shading comprise of colonnades, the right orientation and opening sizing, roof overhangs, planted mesh and balconies (Christoffers, 1996). The forms of protection are the fixed as well as the external operable shading devices that are designed to match the orientation. The fixed shading devices comprise of horizontal overhangs to the south elevations, fixed to east and west elevations and vertical fins to north elevations where they require shading of late afternoon sun (Kensek et al, 1996). The efficacy of the fixed shading devices especially in the arid regions is highly restricted as a result of the high levels the solar radiation reflected and quite high air temperatures, which are also evident in autumn and spring when the sun is comparatively low to strike the shaded window areas (Bouchlaghem, 1996). On the other hand, the operable shading devices can be adjusted to either include or exclude direct or indirect solar radiation while at the same time allowing natural ventilation (Kensek et al, 1996). The devices may include louvered shutters, adjustable blades or the insulated shading panels. It has been revealed that the insulated panels increase thermal resistance when closed (Givoni, 1998). Operable shading devices are perceived to be most effective in hot and arid climates whereby they can decrease solar heat gain via the windows by 85 to 90 %, while at the same time allowing daylighting to enter (Givoni, 1998). According to the experts, the shading devices ought to be made of light as well as reflective materials to curd the re-radiation of heat (Christoffers, 1996). The devices ought to be configured to circumvent trapping hot air against the facades as well as inhibit reflection of solar radiation on the windows or the walls (Christoffers, 1996). Daylighting Using daylighting in buildings can help minimize usage of energy by displacing the electrical energy, which could have otherwise be used to offer artificial lighting as well as by plummeting the cooling loads produced by the lighting fixtures (Bull, 1953). Globally, daylighting accounts for around 50 % of the energy requirements in the commercial buildings. According to studies, proper usage of daylighting, correct glazing selections and high performance lighting could offer between 30 to 50 % lighting energy reductions (Aboulnaga, 2006). In Qatar, the levels of external daylighting are quite high. They vary from 75,000 to 107,500 lux whereas the levels of lighting deemed right inside the buildings at the working plane is 300 to 2000 lux (Aboulnaga, 2006). This is contrary to the overcast skies in the cool climates, which could offer more diffused daylighting allowing higher glazing ratios. As a result, widow placement, glazing type as well as ratio are vitally important to effective energy and efficient lighting, with the windows superlatively signifying 25-40 % of the total external wall area (Bull, 1953). Apparently, it is not a common phenomenon for the buildings in Qatar to use glazing ratios of between 80 and 100 %, a practice that is not suitable the climate and a key contributor to the over usage of energy (Andresen et al, 1995). High levels of daylighting allow for the use of deeper floor plans of up to 19m the façade to the core or the midpoint of the floor of the building as well as lessened upon artificial lighting (Woods, 2007). Conventional Building Design Software Carrier (HAP) The Carrier's Hourly Analysis Program (HAP) is a package with two very powerful tools. Evidently, it offers flexible structures for designing HVAC systems for the commercial buildings (Givoni, 1992). Besides, it provides powerful capabilities for energy analysis to aid in the comparison of energy consumption and the operating costs of alternative design. Substantial saving of time is attained by combining the two tools in a single package. The input data as well as results from the calculations of the design system can directly be used in the energy studies. The Carrier's Hourly Analysis Program is designed mainly to assist the design or build contractors, consulting engineers, facility engineers, HVAC contractors, and other professionals taking part in the design as well as the analysis of the HVAC systems of the commercial building (Givoni, 1992). The carrier HAP is a program for designing systems as well as sizing system constituents. It can with ease handle the projects encompassing: Commercial buildings ranging from small to large The systems comprising of rooftops that are packaged, packaged as well as built up central air handlers, PTACs and fan coils. Numerous kinds of VAV system controls and constant value The small office buildings strip shopping centres, restaurants, retail stores, churches and schools as well as the large office buildings, multi-use buildings, hotels, factories, hospitals, hospitals and malls. New design, retrofit or energy conservation work (Givoni, 1992). The carrier HAP design features The program uses an approach that is design based to design the calculations that modifies the processes of sizing and reports to the particular kind of system that is being designed (Givoni, 1992). This provides the productivity benefits over the simple load calculation, which necessitates the engineer to use the calculation results in sizing the system constituents. The features of the system are appropriate for sizing systems including the central station handlers, split systems, hydronic fan coils, packaged rooftop units, DX fan coils, self-contained units and the water source heat pumps (Givoni, 1992). Additionally, the program has features that can easily design fan coil as well as WSHP systems collectively. Sizing data is mainly offered for cooling and heating coils, fans, terminal reheat coils, preheat and precool coils, humidifiers, fan powered mixing boxes, fan coils, perimeter baseboard units, terminal heat pumps plus chillers as well as boilers and CAV and VAV air terminals v. Furthermore, carrier HAP calculates the needed zone as well as system airflow rates. The calculations are personalized to the particular system type v. Thermal Modelling Simulation Software IES_VE Software The IES Virtual Environment (VE) software package gives the users an opportunity to mall they need to ensure they do in order to guarantee sustainability to a building. Besides, IES VE package permits the users to achieve this easily and inexpensively (Tali, 2012). The IES VE software has a number of varying packages including: VE-Pro: This is the central of the Virtual Environment software. It comprises of differing associated modules that are available to the users for them to develop the suit, which addresses their needs effectively. The abilities across light or daylighting, energy or carbon, UK compliance, CFD, solar, egress as well as mechanical categories are all covered (Tali, 2012). A centrally incorporated system permits the model data and analysis results to be shared with easily among the applications of productivity gains as well as inform and refine stimulations (Tali, 2012). This comprises of information on occupancy, geometry, climate, material, and equipment The Interconnectivity with the BIM/CAD packages guarantees that the 2D/3D simulations can easily be imported, by using gbXML/DXF competences, the tight connectivity with ArchiCAD or the plug-ins to Revit and Sketch Up (Tali, 2012). VE-Ware: This is an entirely free whole building yearly energy and a carbon usage tool. Conclusion Evidently, buildings consume about 30 per cent of the total world’s energy use. Usually the percentage is higher in hot, dry as well as humid climates due to the great demand for cooling necessitated for the thermal comfort of the occupants of the buildings. Buildings do not only consume energy but are also responsible for environmental pollution as a result of greenhouse gases emission leading to climate change. Qatar has the highest CO2 production in the world with 55.4 tonnes of CO2 per person; this is more than 10 times the global average. However, the overall carbon dioxide emissions of Qatar are comparatively modest in comparison to other high income oil producing nations. In order to ensure that the buildings in Qatar regulate their energy consumption and environmental pollution the literature has analyzed some aspects in building including Co2 Emissions in Qatar, Building Orientation, Thermal insulation, Building Fabric, Glazing, Shading, Daylighting, Conventional Building Design Software and Thermal Modelling Simulation Software. References Aboulnaga, M, Al-Sallal, KA and Diasty, RE, 2000, Impact of city Urban patterns on building energy use: Al-Ain city as a case study for hot-arid climates. Architectural Science Review, 43 (3), pp. 147-158 Aboulnaga, MM & Elsheshtawy, YH, 2001, Environmental sustainability assessment of buildings in hot climates: The case of the UAE’. Renewable Energy, 24 (3-4), pp. 553-563 Amato, A., 2012, Case study. Qatar Green Building Council, Accessed on June 13, 2012, http://www.qatargbc.org/case-study-en?t=53&caseID=1 Andresen, I., Aschehoug, Ø., and Thyholt, M. ,1995, Computer Simulations of Energy Consumption for Lighting, Heating and Cooling for an Office Using Different Light Control Strategies. SINTEF report. 20 pages. Trondheim: SINTEF. Austrade, 2008, Green building to the United Arab Emirates, Accessed on June 13, 2012 http://www.austrade.gov.au/Default.aspx?PrintFriendly Benoit C. R., 2012, Thermal Insulation. Accessed on June 13, 2012 http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:8mfFmjmEX9QJ:engineering.dartmouth.edu/~cushman/courses/engs44/insulation.pdf+&hl=en Boer, B, 1997, An introduction to the climate of the United Arab Emirates. Journal of Arid Environments, 35 (1), pp. 3-16 Bouchlaghem, N. M., 1996, A Computer Model for the Design of Window Shading Devices. Building Research and Information. Vol. 24. No. 2. Bull, H. S., 1953, Controlling and Redirecting Daylight by Means of Louvres. The Illuminating Engineer. January. pp. 25-32. Cheng, V, Ng, E and Givoni, B, 2005, Effect of envelope colour and thermal mass on indoor temperatures in hot humid climate. Solar Energy, 78 (4 SPEC. ISS.), pp. 528-534 Christoffers, D. (1996). Seasonal Shading of Vertical South-Facades with Prismatic Panes. Solar Energy. Vol. 57. No. 5. pp. 339-343. Great Britain: Pergamon. Givoni, B, 1992, Climatic aspects of urban design in tropical regions. Atmospheric Environment - Part B Urban Atmosphere, 26 (3), pp. 397-406 Givoni, B, 1994, Passive and low-energy cooling of buildings. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, USA Givoni, B, 1994, Urban design for hot humid regions. Renewable Energy, 5 (5-8), pp. 1047-1053 Givoni, B, 1998, Climate considerations in building and urban design. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, USA. Henning, H. M., 2007, Solar assisted air conditioning of buildings-An overview: Applied thermal Engineering 27 (10), pp 1734-1749 Kazim, AM, 2007, Assessments of primary energy consumption and its environmental consequences in the United Arab Emirates. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 11, pp. 426-446 Kensek, K., Noble, D., Schiler, M. and Setiadarma, E., 1996, Shading Mask: A Teaching Tool for Sun Shading Devices. Automation in Construction. No. 5. Elsevier. pp. 219-231 Lina Y. and Yuguo Li (2008). Cooling load reduction by using thermal mass and night ventilation. Energy and Buildings 40 (2008): pp. 2052-2058 Pears, A, 2005, Energy systems, appliances and equipment, BEDP Environment Design Guide, Australian Institution of Architects, Melbourne, 2005, pp. 1-7 Prasad, D, Chandra, S and Fisher, M, 2003, Revisiting energy efficiency in commercial buildings, Royal Australian Institute of Architects, Melbourne 2003, Accessed on June 13, 2012, http:content.environmentdesignguide.net.au/i- cms? Prassard, D.K., Ballinger, J.A., and Morrison, G.L., 1992, Advanced Glazing Development and Potential Energy Impact. Australian Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heating. Vol. 46. No. 1. January. pp. 15-18. Samarai, MA and Qudah, LM, 2007, Planning sustainable mega projects in UAE. World Housing Congress: affordable quality housing, Malaysia Santamouris, M., Pavlou, K., Synnefa, A. Niachou, K. Kolokotsa, D. , 2007. Recent progress on passive cooling techniques: Advanced technological developments to improve survivability levels in low-income households. Energy and Buildings 39 (7), pp 859-866 Southwall Technologies, Heat Mirror Insulating Glass, Accessed on June 13, 2012 http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=92367&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=106 Steemers, K., 1989, External Shading Devices. Building Technical File. Cambridge: The Martin Centre for Architectural and Urban Studies. No. 27. pp. 9-16 Tali A., 2012, IES Unique Virtual Environment Energy Modelling Software offers an Easy to Use Interface. Accessed on June 13, 2012. http://buildaroo.com/news/article/ies-unique-virtual-environment-energy-modeling-software-offers-an-easy-to-use-interface/ Tsangrassoulis, A., Santamouris, M., and Asimakopoulos, D., 1996, Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of Daylight Performance for Various Shading Systems. Energy and Buildings. No. 24. pp. 223-230 Urge-Vorsatz, D. Harvey, L.D.D., Mirasgedis, S. and Devine, M., 2007. Mitigating CO2 emissions from energy use in the world’s buildings. Building research and Information 35 (4): pp. 379-398 Wood, A, 2007, Sustainability: A new high rise vernacular?, The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings. 16 (4), pp. 401 – 410 Read More