Career and Counseling Theories - Literature review Example

Table of Contents 1.0.Introduction 1 2.0.Trait and Types 2 2.1.Holland 3 2.2.Myers-Briggs 4 2.3.Work Adjustments Theory of Dawis and Lofquist 4 3.0.Life span theory 5 3.1.Ginzberg and colleagues 5 3.2.Super 6 3.3.Tiedeman and O’Hara 7 3.4.Gottfredson 7 4.0.Conclusion 8 5.0.References 9 1.0. Introduction Making correct career choices are one of the core objectives of career counseling. In this regards, career counseling has widened its purpose and scope to take into consideration the adults who make many career choices over their lifespan. Workers in a contemporary society have the obligation to be lifelong learners, willing to adapt to different and new circumstances. Career theories basically are bound by and as matter of fact reflect the economic and social environments in which the theory exist. Career guidance theories are fundamentally driven by both the economic and social realities. As Brown and Brooks (2002) put it, the modern concept that explains career guidance emanated from the industrial age. The same sentiment is offered by Hansen (1997) that during the industrial revolution, the vertical integration in the hierarchical organizations imposed career guidance whose main role was to enhance the passage from education to employment. 2.0. Trait and Types Trait in psychological contexts may be used to refer to a conscious motive or a characteristic pattern of behavior which can assess and determined by peers. On the other hand type may be used to describe a particular collection of traits that constitute a wider personality classification. Trait and type theory borrows its antecedents from the theories that analyses behavior and the integration of such behavior through measurements and tests (Savicka and Lent, 1994).According to Swanson (2000), personality traits refers to “ enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts”. Trait has principally been used to refer to the interests, abilities and personality characteristics. As a result this theory in comparison to the life span approach champions for the matching of the individual capabilities, interests and personality with the available career opportunities, and in case they are accomplished, then the career problems of those individuals become solved. Due to its complete reliance on individuals’ interests, the theory focally bases its application on the differential psychology and uniqueness of individuals. Basically trait personality displays extraversion and neuroticism unlike the type personality which gives a distinction between the introverts and the extroverts. In contrast, type theory considers people as discrete in terms of their characteristics while trait personality assumes the same human characteristics as part of the larger continuum. For instance in as much as the type theory would claim that the extroverts and introverts are two categories of people, trait personality advocate that the two groups have differing personality, a possibility exist that introversion and extroversion share somewhere at the middle. As noted by Bluestein (2003), recently many psychologists are shifting from the type theory to trait theory, since majority of researches conducted have explicitly shown how human personality occurs along continuous dimensions which allows for a flexible and clear categorization of people without relying on the discrete type which fits people into groups without making an examined analysis. Type personality do give a better orientation of human personality regardless of the many dichotomies that one opts to consider. 2.1. Holland As one of the primary proponents of the theory, he gives a clear attention to the styles of personality or behavior as the main influence to career development. During his studies in career development, he was able to notice that the congruence work environment and ones personality was a major decider to satisfaction, occupational achievement and stability. In addition, personality of individuals as a matter of fact dictated the occupation choice and the extent of output from the occupation. However, in as much as members of an occupational group will display same personalities, he noted that problems and situations will be responded to virtually in a similar manner but depending on the personality. According to Super and Savicas (1998), Holland devised six types to explain the occupations that individuals could engage in as far as the expanse of career development. The six types included realistic, artistic, investigative, social, conventional and enterprising (RIASEC). These vocational model of Holland, give a direction in which people are capable of choosing their career paths. He uses the RIASEC assessment model in tracing the career development of individuals. Holland approach to traits theory had an equal measure of benefits as well as the demerits to students. Learners found the approach intuitively appealing hence could give meaning to the different ways of the work environment. On the contrary, the approach lacked insights to developing a guidance that could conform to the students demand during work. 2.2. Myers-Briggs Myers and Briggs devised a theory that they used to measure psychological preferences on how people could make decisions and ultimately perceive the world. In this they came up with Myers-Briggs Indicator Type (MBIT) assessment. As explained by Hansen (1997), this theory laid bare rational functions that incorporated both feeling and thinking. In addition the theory also gave an explicit analysis of irrational functions of intuition and sensation. In theorizing this, they concluded that people develop certain ways of deciding and perceiving or naturally born with such personality. And in the process of differentiating the personalities, MBIT could sort some of them into opposite dichotomies with a possibility of 16 psychological types. 2.3. Work Adjustments Theory of Dawis and Lofquist This theory provides a comprehensive model for conceptualizing the interactions between work environments and how individuals interact. It proposes that individuals with certain characteristics are best suited to carrying out work corresponding to the characteristics of those work demands. Conversely, the theory assumes that an individual’s work environments and individuals are affective in particular ways-in as much as individuals’ depend on work environment to reinforce their characteristics so is the work environment depending on individuals to meeting their requirements. As is reinforced by Gottfredson (2004), work adjustment theory explains satisfaction and performance as the core to job requirements in that satisfaction influences performance just like performance influences satisfaction. During career development, jobs that meet the needs of individuals seem satisfying hence a possibility of a better performance. This would allow people to stay longer on the job f the performance is achieved and are better satisfied. 3.0. Life span theory Life span theory proposes the five stages of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance and disengagement as the career development stages which has to occur through one’s life span. This theory in contrast to other career counseling models weaves two approaches into one-self-concept and development models. As Brown and Brooks (2002) note, the primary tenants of this model believe that as people grow older throughout the developmental stages, they are capable of forming clearly defined self-concepts. Super and Savicas (1998)agree to the same sentiments that self-concepts actualize things for individuals as they pass through various stages of growth and development. In a more explicit manner, decisions individuals make regarding their career base on the similarity between the vocational and self concepts. 3.1. Ginzberg and colleagues Ginzberg and his colleagues proposed three life stages of career development which were in correspondence with the chronological age. As asserted by Savicka and Lent (1994), the three stages of fantasy, tentative and the realistic stages which outlined how choice could be refined from interests to specification. Bluestein (2003) echoes similar sentiments by other theorists that the “stages help student clarify self-concept because any task that enhances self-knowledge will increase vocational maturity. Then help them relate their self-knowledge to occupational information” (p. 266).It is of importance to the clients owing to the extent it could help individuals progress through life. In itself it provided a guide to the clients in resolving the anticipated problems as well as the judicious use of the career information. 3.2. Super Advocated for a theory that proposes how people could choose occupations and work that could allow them to show and express, develop and implement self-concepts throughout their work life. This was an extension of Ginzberg and colleagues’ work which he believed had weaknesses he needed to address. According to Super, implementation of individuals’ self-concepts dictated their satisfaction to larger extent. In addition, the theory has provided a framework for comprehending the complexities that arise with career behavior. At every stage of development, super provided a gradual and slow exposure to work and self-concepts including the readiness to carry out a particular task which may be either cognitive or affective. Moving from the stage of play to work orientation encompasses major developmental tasks such as identification of tee likes and the dislikes as the root to the career choices and vocationalizing self-concepts. As a result, he developed the vocational maturity that corresponded well to chronological ages. According to Hansen (1997), Super approached the lifespan theory from a concept of life space which addresses the social role psychology and life span. This, he captured in Life-Career Rainbow encompassing dimensions of space and time. Space dimensions addresses the social settings where the roles of individuals are occurring while on the other hand time dimension of career development stresses on the roles played by individuals. 3.3. Tiedeman and O’Hara Tiedman and O’Hara theory of career development provides an approach that assume individual to be responsible for their behavior as choice and decision making are particular. In addition, they argue that the instrumental cause behind behavior is the anticipation of continuity and the precipitation of purposeful decision making which arise from the discomfort of life (Hansen, 1997). Basically they propose seven sequential stages of exploration, choice, clarification, induction, reformation, crystallization and integration are guiding factors in decision making hence the expression of one’s identity through a personally determined career. 3.4. Gottfredson Gottfredson developed a theory of compromise and circumscription. The circumscription piece is centered on filtering of the choices that an individual following any career path may be confronted with. As noted by Swanson (2000) in the journal “Vocational Behavior,” pg116 ‘students may start eliminating possible career choices when they are quite young, but not for possible or accurate reasons’. This argument conforms to the proposition of other career theorist in the sense that, at young age, career choices are based on authoritative figures and gender roles whereas at old age individuals basically use evaluative skills of critical thinking to satisfy their interests. The compromise component of the theory advocates for individuals opening up to the acceptable alternatives whenever the major career path seems unrealistic (Gottfredson, 2004). In contrast to other theorist, it proposes for students to be exposed to a wider range of careers, since the occupation options are not static but narrows over time. A case in hand shows how the subjects studied in schools shifts depending on the relevance in the society. 4.0. Conclusion Career counseling from all the perspectives includes helping clients to look around and ahead and in the due course to choose viable opportunities. On the whole, career theories give practical insights into means of improving the quality of career practices. Practically, through their focus on the individuals’ beliefs and self-system, the inherent of the economic and social contexts are explicitly addressed. Of similarity, the theories have tried to match people to positions and to the available careers that contend to the adaptations that are capable of offering greatest potential for separating the segments as well as generating new hypotheses. 5.0. References Bluestein, D (2003). A context-rich perspective on career exploration across life roles. The Career Development Quarterly, 45, 260-274. Brown, D and Brooks, L (2002). Career Choice and Development .Applying Contemporary Theories to Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Brown, Sand Lent, R (2005). Career development and counseling: putting theory and research to work. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Gottfredson, L (2004). Using Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription and compromise in career guidance and counselling. Retrieved from http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2004theory.pdf Hansen, S (1997). The Intergrative life planning: A framework for career development in the 21st century. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Onyejiaku, F. (2001).Careers guidance and counseling services in schools .Lagos: Vita-Nasco & Company. Savickas, M. & Lent, R. (1994).Convergence in Career Development Theories. Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. Super, D, Savicas,M and Super, C (1998). The life-span, life space approach to careers. In D.Brown and L.Brooks and Associates (Eds), Career choice and development(3rd ed pg 121-178). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Swanson, J (2000). Life –span career development and reciprocal interactions of work and nonwork. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 41, 101-161. Read More