Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicle in Agriculture - Literature review Example

University of Southern Queensland Faculty of Health, Engineering, and Sciences ASSESSMENT OF POTENTIAL OF HYDROGEN FUELLED VEHICLE IN AGRICULTURE A dissertation submitted by You’re Name in full In fulfillment of the requirements of ENG8411/ENG8412 Research Project Towards the degree of Master of Engineering Sciences (Your major in full) Submitted: Month, Year CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW Hydrogen Energy According to recent studies from authors, hydrogen is the fuel of the future (Ullah et al. 2015). Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can be used in internal combustion of the engine or in the fuel cell producing almost no greenhouse gas emissions when combusted with oxygen. When hydrogen is burning to produce energy, the only noticeable emission is water vapor. Many researches is currently undertaken to investigate how the gas can be stored for energy production. A solar-hydrogen system can provide the means for a totally emission free method of producing hydrogen. However, the steam reformation of methane is currently the major route to hydrogen production, the emissions involved can also manage more efficiently that the present transportation system fuel. Climate change is a serious issue and the side effects are increasing each and every day (Singh et al. 2014). The increase in the level of CO2 has a direct impact on global warming, and it is increasing each and every day. The graph below shows the consistent increase in the global warming for the past years:- Figure 1: CO2 Concentration since 1880 For fuel to be used as an alternative and viewed as an alternative, it must be technically feasible, economically viable and can be easily converted to another form of energy with no harm or little effect to the environment (Hoen and Koetse 2014). Hydrogen is considered as the most abundant element on earth. However, Hydrogen does not exist freely in nature, and it can be produced from a variety of sources including and not limited to the steam reformation of the natural gas, the gasification of the coal and the electrolysis of water (Lee 2014). Hydrogen gas can be easily used in the traditional gasoline-powered internal combustion engines (ICE) with little conversion. Nevertheless, this cuts across vehicles with polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel. The possibility of hydrogen economy that helps in incorporating the use of hydrogen into every aspect of transportation which requires much further attention as the currently available literature has not covered everything. A hydrogen atom consists only of one product. It is found in many organic compounds like hydrocarbons that make up fuels such as gasoline, natural gas, methanol among others. The hydrogen can be separated from the hydrocarbons through the application of heat through a process called reforming. Hydrogen is high in energy and it pure burns to produce no pollution but water vapor (Hoen and Koetse 2014). A fuel cell is promising technology of the use as a source of heat and electricity for buildings and an electrical power source for electric motors and propelling vehicles. Usually, the fuel cell operates best in pure hydrogen and products like gasoline; methanol can be reformed to produce gasoline. Many researches have been commissioned to help in evaluating the viability of hydrogen to be used as alternative fuel in agricultural sectors. This can be done through the production of biomass which is reached in the hydrogen content (Watkins and McKendry 2015). Some other research has been conducted to establish the viability of hydrogen gas to be used as a source of electricity because hydrogen is energy carrier. An energy carrier moves and delivery energy in usable form to consumers. It is important to note that renewable sources of energy like sun and the wind is not able to produce energy all the time, but they can produce hydrogen energy which can be stored for future use (Hoen and Koetse 2014). Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Agricultural Vehicles There is consensus among studies that hydrogen fuel cells for agricultural vehicles are similar to a battery (Ambrose et al. 2016). However, the difference is that provided that fuel in the form of hydrogen and oxygen is supplied to the fuel cells it is therefore possible that it will keep producing energy, while at the same time batteries produce electricity from stored chemicals energy as well as recharging. Moreda et al. (2016) observes that the only emission from a hydrogen fuel cell in operation when it comes to water. However, energy is needed to produce the needed hydrogen. Recent studies have noted that New Holland developed two prototype hydrogen fuel cell tractors with the newest being the model they term as NH2. According to the study, the company has been promoting the NH2 together with energy independent farms like a La Bellotta that currently operates in Italy where other trials are conducted. Studies are currently concentrating on the energy efficiency of a hydrogen fuel cell that is currently used in agricultural vehicles (Das et al. 2017; Borén et al. 2017; Xu et al. 2016). Taking case studies from Xu et al. (2016) the author asserts that the efficiency of hydrogen fuel cells depends on where the energy comes from for the production. For instance, Niakolas et al. (2016) noted that if it is from the renewable resources, then the only energy expenditure will be from decommissioning and manufacturing the vehicle. This view was supported by Demirbas (2017) who has compared LCAha of a fuel cells car to that of a vehicle that uses the most efficient common rail diesel engine. The study concluded that utilization of fuel produced from renewable resources improves LCA fuel efficiency improvement by at least 35 percent. On the other hand, the study noted that utulising fuel produced from fossil fuels records a smaller margin of improvement recorded as existing between 15-25 percent. According to Hardman et al. (2017) the essential part of New Holland’s Energy Independent Farm project is farm machines and in particular, a tractor that can run on hydrogen. This study therefore sought to understand the best way to eliminate the use as well as the cost of fossil fuel from production cycle of agriculture. A practical example New Holland has taken include T6000 model which was noted to be experimental NH2 tractor that was launched in 2009. In this case, hydrogen fuelled vehicles in agriculture is taking a different where the company was launching a vehicle which was going to replace normal diesel engine with hydrogen fuel cells so as to generate electricity. According to Siebel et al. (2016), this is a case where technology is generating electricity to drive motors that can power tractor. Currently, Kil and Hwang (2016) observe that the tractor New Holland is having is a 100-kilowatt working prototype that can perform all activities equivalent to their previous model which was T6000. However, there are concerns from studies such as Asadi et al. (2017) that have noted that hydrogen is hard to store as a liquid fuel thus making it a challenge for vehicles in agriculture. This view was supported by Felgenhauer et al. (2016) who noted that for vehicles in agriculture to be hydrogen fuelled; other factors are essential including chilling it to around -252C besides being compressed. These challenges conform to studies such as Hosseini and Wahid (2016) which noted that hydrogen liquid just produces about 10 megajoules per litre when compared with petrol which is estimated at about 33 megajoules. Hydrogen Vehicle The behaviour of hydrogen fuelled vehicles over the past years has formed the basis of discussion concerning their potential in agriculture. Past researchers have discussed some of the benefits of hydrogen fuelled vehicles whether they outweigh those of petrol fuelled vehicles. The researchers have investigated the possibility of government policy having an effect on this whether positive or negative (Watkins and McKendry 2015). Investors get affected in their quest towards economic growth when the cost of doing business rises and always try to seek some alternative measures to make sure that the cost goes down. Some of the vehicles used in agriculture include tractors that consume a lot of fuel. But when hydrogen is used on the same the cost primarily comes down (Hoen and Koetse 2014; Franzitta et al. 2016). This is not the same in most of the countries, and the prices vary from one country to the next depending on the growth of the economy which determines the cost factors of some of the machines. There is big different between transport and energy sector, but both depends on each other. The two sectors are the major contributors to carbon emission in the economy. It is estimated that US energy consumption of U.S. was 98 Quadrillion Btu in 2016 out of which 67% was consumed by transport. Petroleum, natural gas, and coal represent 80% of energy supply, and they produce around 74% of greenhouse gas emission (Hoen & Koetse, 2014). This can be presented in the diagram below:- Figure 2: Greenhouse gas emission per sector To solve this problem of greenhouse gas emission, it is important to introduce alternative fuel, and that is why we are proposing hydrogen gas. Hydrogen is being considered for its use as an energy carrier for stationary power and transportation markets. It can be used with a very high efficiency and near-zero emissions at the point of use, and it is being proposed to be used in the agricultural sector (Watkins and McKendry 2015). A study concerning fuel cell vehicle was conducted in California. The survey was conducted using three component questionnaires. This kind of questionnaire allows the respondents to check the box as to why he or she is interested in the fuel cell vehicles and the CFCP and some specific personal characteristics. This survey was major to establish the general acceptance of the vehicle among people as this would determine the potentiality of rolling out hydrogen fuel. In their response, most people surveyed were aged between 36-55 years of age giving 46% followed by youths aged 21-35 years and 20 years and below were only 4%. 98% of respondent requested time to read about this vehicle before they could answer questions in the questionnaire an indication that most people don't know much about this vehicle. This survey was not random in nature, and only individuals who were willing were able to complete the questionnaire (Watkins and McKendry 2015). In the study, most people were mentioning the environmentally friendly nature of this alternative fuel as the main reason as to why they can choose it. Fuel economy of this vehicle was also mentioned by the respondents more so the people who are in the agricultural sector where it is fuel intensive. The environmental benefits of this vehicle and the fuel were quoted as the breakthrough which would help in the emission of greenhouse gas and help in the reduction of the ozone layer. The study concluded that the general acceptance of this vehicle is high if people have enough information hence has a high level of potentiality for use in the agricultural sector across the globe (Watkins and McKendry 2015). Malaysian for instance, agricultural sector contributes to the GDP at around 10%, this means that this sector provides a substantial economic development in a country. The crop residue in the country is divided into two major categories which are crop residue and agricultural residue. The crop residue is the major source of bio-energy being used in the firms. It is estimated that 20% of the land in Malaysia is under agriculture. The most coveted agricultural product includes tobacco, coconut, coffee, tobacco and sugarcane (Sigal et al. 2014). The crops are mainly used for nutritional values, and the remains form the major source of the biomass fuel. When the alternative source of fuel is tapped in agricultural sector the overall country energy production will increase, and the greenhouse gas emission will reduce by about 40%. European countries have agreed to ensure reduction of greenhouse gas emission, and this can only be possible if the overall energy consumption in transport and agricultural sector is reduced. The alternative fuels like hydrogen fuels have the capability of reducing this. The overall potential household which can be covered by biofuel in Malaysia is 48%, and this will reduce the greenhouse gas emission y 30% annually. Therefore, using the case of Malaysia, it is important for the country to adopt hydrogen fuel in use in agricultural and transport sector (Hoen & Koetse, 2014). Fuel and technology Ahmadi and Kang (2015) discusses the significance of the hydrogen-fuelled vehicles in the context of the prevailing Market conditions while Watkins and McKendry (2015) looks at the level of the economic growth within a country. Some researchers have a summed that hydrogen-fuelled vehicles are expensive to acquire and this hinders most countries from acquiring them while others have assumed that the maintenance cost has since been a major factor that has hindered the use. Some researchers have also argued that the prevailing weather conditions have forced some country not to consider hydrogen-powered vehicles due to low water levels in some water catchment areas. Fuel Technology was extensively developed in Japan, the European Union, and the United States, some researchers have discovered that fuel cells are used to generate electricity, and also they provide a clean source of energy as far as production is concerned. Ancient Research on public acceptance and behaviour towards hydrogen technologies for transport was reviewed by Watkins and McKendry (2015). They were found that although people's knowledge was still limited concerning the idea but some public awareness had been done to the farmers, and most of them were in the process of adopting the use of tractors that are powered by hydrogen. Asadi, Alavijeh and Zilouei (2017) investigated some of the factors that influence most farmers to adopt the use of clean vehicles in Hamilton Canada. A sample of 500 individuals was put together, and the research found out that factors like land user mix and population density were some of the key determinants for the use of Hydro fuel vehicles in agriculture. The research also found out that low emission rates and government policies like tax incentives would induce most farmers to adopt the technology. While low fuel availability was also a major concern for the farmers (Asadi et al. 2017). Sigal et al. (2014) investigated the importance of information to the farmers on eco-labels while purchasing the vehicles that use hydrogen gives an account that consumer never reacted to information on emission but rather at the level of the vehicle. Eco-labelling effects were found to be weak and majorly depended on the previously acquired knowledge. A research study done by Ahmadi and Kjeang (2015) assessed the preferences of about 280 drivers in South Korea relating to AFVs where determinants like ownership of the vehicle and its usage are being taken into account. The findings show that consumers prefer Natural Gas vehicles over HEVs vehicle. Another research by Sgobbi et al. (2016) investigated the major independent farm project in Holland is Tractor that runs on Hydrogen. This project has helped developed most parts of Holland Agricultural System. According to Bicer et al. (2017) mentioned some of the benefits of this scheme was to eliminate the use of fuel that causes a lot of emission to the environment hence reduces the production cost. The first hydrogen tractor was discovered in the year 2009 in Holland to replace the use of normal diesel engine with the main purpose of generating electricity. According to Sigal et al. (2014) Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe but is always bonded with something else like oxygen (to make water) or carbon (in plants). It's also the major component of the sun. To make use of hydrogen, it must be separated so it can be used as an energy carrier. It can be made from water, plants, and coal. Projected cost of the fuel The energy to produce hydrogen can come from any renewable resources such as waste, biomass, wind or solar panels; with present technology, 600 m2 of photovoltaic panels are needed to generate enough energy. The figure below gives an account on how the cost of production reduced due to the introduction of hydropower system on vehicles being used for farming. Most households and farmers managed to improve their production since tractors consumed lesser fuels and the environment was protected at a greater level since there was low emission to the environment Singh et al. (2014) State that proper infrastructure is needed to realize this scheme of hydrogen fuelled vehicles technology. Hydraulic stations need to be built in various parts of the country to first-track the idea. The main advantages this method according to the researcher is that can be refueled just as fast as gasoline power cars; it has very low emissions and is much better for the environment since the emissions will be low. The use of oil in vehicles has been one of the most expensive factors in acquiring vehicles both locally and internationally the cost is affected by market forces, and some are exaggerated by the main exporters. Hydrogen powered vehicles lower the use of fuel since they will be powered by the use of water which is mostly readily available. In 2009 the cost of fuel rose to almost 50% in many parts of the United States forcing companies and individuals to seek alternative means of powering their vehicles. Patterson et al. (2013) puts into a perspective public attitude towards demand for hydrogen vehicles. He argues that proper communication and side-demand policies for a different source of energy requires proper thinking and demand determinants of the consumers within the market, He further states that if peoples attitude are still focused on the use of oil vehicles for transport, then it will sometimes take before they are convinced otherwise. He further argues that proper awareness and campaigns on the same needs to be done to ensure that consumers and public at large are informed on both advantages and disadvantages before the shift of attitudes. The introduction of hydrogen vehicles into the market is considered to be a long-term policy in climate management and objectives (Patterson et al. 2013). Some Tech-economic hindrances still need to be worked on before the hydrogen cars penetrate the market fully. Before then an intensive market research needs to be done by gathering the opinion of as many farmers as possible through surveys and other methods of data a collection to determine its viability into the market before it's accepted by the public. Bicer et al. (2017) State that most farmers have been trying to conserve the environment for a while, but it has been possible for them to get the clean energy. Most of the have been affected by the emission from oil hence abandoning the business altogether due to the chemical effects from the oil fuel. Clean energy has therefore given most farmers in Indonesia another opportunity to venture into the farming business again since the atmosphere has seen been cleared with the clean air from the hydrogen power. The natural gas and hydrogen mixture pathway It is well documented that transport in urban centers produces the most GHG and more poisonous and harmful omissions. Hydrogen systems could provide a remedy to the above problem, both immediate and long-term reductions in global carbon (IV) oxide emissions and criteria pollutants in transportation systems. There has been a proposal of use of a mixture of hydrogen and natural gas as a vehicle fuel. This is a way of harnessing the low emission potential of hydrogen without the complications associated with a dedicated hydrogen-fueled vehicle. The farm project is a key part of New Holland's (Asadi, Alavijeh & Zilouei, 2017). The aim is to eliminate the use, and therefore the cost, of fossil fuel from agriculture production cycle. The experimental hydrogen-powered vehicles are classified into two; Those using hydrogen as a fuel in a modified internal combustion engine Those using hydrogen to generate electricity for powering electric motors In this case, the project is focused on the first kind where hydrogen is combusted to produce fuel, following the fact that hydrogen is hard to store as a liquid fuel, it is chilled at around -252 degrees and compressed. However, even liquid hydrogen isn't a great source of energy and power producing almost ten mega joules per liter against petrol at 33 MJ and diesel at 37 MJ. However, it is more efficient in weight. And following the fact that it will not pollute the environment, and transportation cost will be cheaper, so it is preferable (Asadi et al. 2017). Reasons being it produces less heat than an engine driven with diesel or petrol. Hence the machinery that is used suffers less wear and tear; it also offers a consistent power output and the nitrogen oxides, soot particulates or carbon dioxide produced are non-pollutant (Watkins and McKendry 2015). New Holland's new farm project resolved to the extraction of hydrogen through electrolysis; unlike many people assume the process of electrolysis need not much water, the hydrogen extracted from a liter of water can drive a machine over the same distance as a machine driven by petrol. They, therefore, come to a conclusion that farming in the future will be efficient with the use of hydrogen to drive the engines. The potential of fuel cell vehicles to move us toward sustainability depends greatly on four sustainable issues. They include the impacts on the environment and economy of the materials used in the vehicles, the energy source and methods used for hydrogen production, their life cycle costs and consumer acceptance (Hoen and Koetse 2014). A study in the US shows how hydrogen potential renewal to assist on agriculture. It says, upon depletion of hydrogen it can be regenerated by converting biogas to hydrogen. This implies that is shall be a vicious cycle of the products, wastes, and fuel in the arm. By this I mean take for example waste from a cow makes biogas then the tractor a the farm is powered by hydrogen thus if the hydrogen is depleted then the animal waste, now better known as hydrogen, will be used to regenerate the hydrogen and hence help in the farm again. This is a positive impact to the agricultural for almost nothing goes to waste (Asadi et al. 2017). An overview on how the biogas is converted into hydrogen. First one has to consider the three calculations necessary for estimating the potential hydrogen from select biogas resources that are the resource assessment of the methane content in the biogas, biogas purification for natural-gas-quality bio methane and biomethane conversion to hydrogen (Ambrose et al. 2016). These calculations are specific to each resource category. The purification of biogas and its conversion to hydrogen are addressed in common for all resource categories. The fuel cells technology is used in India too. Since India is ahead in implementing the Euro 5 and Euro 6 emission norms for vehicles in the coming days (Asadi et al. 2017). Their research of the hydrogen-fueled automobiles uses hydrogen on-board to generate motive power to either directly through internal combustion engine or indirectly, they present that hydrogen can be used in different configurations for internal combustion. These are spark ignition and compression ignition (Hoen and Koetse 2014) They can be achieved by direct injection of hydrogen in the SI engine. They also show that hydrogen can also be used with biogas or any other low-grade gaseous fuels in this mode for the applications in locomotives and stationary power generation. In the case of biogas diesel, HCCI hydrogen can be a good additive in operation, as it raises the efficiency and extends the range of the load. With the direct injection of hydrogen together with HCCI, engine control units are dual fuel hence the engine has control strategies, in some cases to switch between modes have to be developed. Globally, several R and D project have been undergoing in various parts of the world for developing hydrogen-based internal combustion engines. Some of the important projects were; HyICE program in Europe, by the commission of BMW in collaboration with various industries. Next Generation Environmental Friendly Vehicle Development and Commercialization project in Japan for heavy duty engines direct injection Hydrogen IC engines. Development of the two hydrogen engines in Tokyo City University. Considerable progress has been made to the realization of the hydrogen driven engines all over the globe, driving factor being the urge to reduce the pollution caused by diesel and petrol driven engines. They because global warming which in turn negatively affect the agricultural practices like for example the shifting in rainfall patterns and the acidification of soil among other negative effects. Therefore looking for alternative energy sources such as harnessing of power from the wind and solar energy and even water to be able to produce water to drive certain machinery, the potential of hydrogen has also proved to be a reliable source of energy from the pros discussed above (Ambrose et al. 2016). Following the fact that it matches energy produced by diesel and petrol when extracted using hydrolysis then is certainly the best alternative source of energy to replace all the others. Importance of hydrogen gas To begin with, the importance of hydrogen fueled vehicle to the environment and most importantly its impact on agriculture. In developing and industrialized countries, air pollution is a serious catastrophe in the health and agricultural sectors. In industrialized countries, motor vehicle emission is the leading contributors to the urban air quality (Ambrose et al. 2016). Hydrogen is one of the non-pollutant gasses that help reduce the pollution by motor vehicle emissions. But again it is not an energy source, neither is it a primary energy existing in nature. It has to me manufactured through a thermochemical process to extract it from its primary state just like electricity, or through electrolysis as it is a secondary form of energy. Hydrogen production utilizing steam transforming of methane is the most sparing strategy among the present business forms. In this strategy, gaseous petrol feedstock costs, for the most part, contribute roughly 52–68% of the last hydrogen cost for bigger plants, and 40% for littler plants, with residual costs made out of capital charges. The hydrogen creation taken a toll from petroleum gas using steam improving methane fluctuates from around 1.25 US$/kg for vast frameworks to around 3.50 US$/kg for little frameworks with a flammable gas cost of 6 US$/GJ. Hydrogen is modest by utilizing sun-powered vitality or by water electrolysis where power is shoddy (Hoen and Koetse 2014). Hydrogen has a vital significance in the quest for low discharge, condition amiable, cleaner and more reasonable vitality framework. It can be tapped to ensure no greenhouse gas emissions. When hydrogen is combusted, the resultant product is clean and has no harm whatsoever to the environment, these products are hydrogen and a few nitrogen oxides. Hydrogen has special properties when it comes to transportation, some of which include. It is a renewable source of energy: This, therefore, means that it cannot be depleted as it is bountiful in supply (Hoen and Koetse 2014). Although it takes a lot of resources to harness it, no energy source is infinite as hydrogen. That simply means it is almost impossible of running out like other energy sources. It is a clean energy source: When hydrogen is burnt to produce fuel, the by-products are safe with no side effect to the surrounding (Asadi et al. 2017). It is more efficient than other energy sources: Hydrogen is by far the solidly most efficient energy this is because of its ability to convey a lot of energy for every pound of fuel. This categorically means that a vehicle that uses hydrogen will travel longer than that on gasoline. It is non-toxic: It does not cause any harm or destruction to human or their surrounding and in this case, has no problem with agriculture. Others are its rapid burning speed, its high octane number, and the non-toxic or ozone-forming potential (Watkins and McKendry 2015). Hydrogen has much wider limits of flammability inn air than methane and gasoline. Hydrogen has become a quite dominant transport fuel, and it is centrally produced from a mixture of clean coal and fossil fuels, nuclear power and large-scale renewables (Hoen and Koetse 2014). Summary of Literature Review The behaviour of hydrogen fuelled vehicles over the past years has formed the basis of discussion concerning their potential in agriculture. Past researchers have discussed some of the benefits of hydrogen fuelled vehicles whether they outweigh those of petrol fuelled vehicles. The researchers have investigated the possibility of government policy having an effect on this whether positive or negative this paper aimed at to identify potential resources which are readily available for production of hydrogen in U.S---creating an environment to come up with long-term investment plant for assessing hydrogen fuel in agriculture and to evaluate the different scenarios for the implementation of agricultural fuel cell vehicle. It is more efficient than other energy sources: Hydrogen is by far the solidly most efficient energy this is because of its ability to convey a lot of energy for every pound of fuel. This categorically means that a vehicle that uses hydrogen will travel longer than that on gasoline. The energy to produce hydrogen can come from any renewable resources such as waste, biomass, wind or solar panels; with present technology, 600 m2 of photovoltaic panels are needed to generate enough energy. The figure below gives an account on how the cost of production reduced due to the introduction of hydropower system on vehicles being used for farming. Most households and farmers managed to improve their production since tractors consumed lesser fuels and the environment was protected at a greater level since there was low emission. Therefore, the literature review concludes that there is much potential in using hydrogen as the next source of energy in agriculture and homes as a whole. References Ahmadi, P. and Kjeang, E., 2015. Comparative life cycle assessment of hydrogen fuel cell passenger vehicles in different Canadian provinces. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 40(38), pp.12905-12917. Ambrose, A.F., Al-Amin, A.Q., Rasiah, R., Saidur, R. and Amin, N., 2017. Prospects for introducing hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in Malaysia. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 42(14), pp.9125-9134. Asadi, N., Alavijeh, M.K. and Zilouei, H., 2017. 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