Are Antibiotics Friends or Foes - Literature review Example

Antibiotics Name: University: Instructor: Course Title: Date: Abstract The use of antibiotics elicits numerous reactions. The invention of antibiotics has contributed to a large extent of easing humanity problems. The invention allowed medical practitioners to treat diseases caused by bacterial which were massive killers before mid 1940s. However, the rates at which the antibiotics are being produced currently do not match the new strains that are emerging as a result of the same invention. These has resulted into new bugs that pose threat to humanity as there is possibility of people going back to ages before 1929. The ultimate goal of this paper was to interrogate the phrase that “is antibiotics friends or foes?” in the discourse, there emerged two stand points. The first is the reality that antibiotics are good and have helped the humanity in overcoming disease caused by bacteria. However, there are emerging issues that have arisen as a result of the same. The first and critical is the resistance as a result of new strains. The conclusion that is drawn from this work is that that while antibiotics are good and thus a friend, the current literatures tend to lean towards the fact that it is turning to be a foe as a result of side effects that it has as a result of prolonged misuse either for medical or non medical purposes. 1.0 Introduction Human beings are prone to bacterial infections. However, the astonishing fact is that bacteria are common in human bodies with beneficial outcomes and it is only less than 1% that is harmful to human beings. Before 1920s bacterial infections were one of the major world killers based on their ability to multiply faster (Evans & Brachman, 1998, p.49). Since the invention of penicillin in 1929, the issue of antibiotics has received a mixed reaction over the timeline. It is this mixed reactions that creates an aura around the topic so that it can be considered are friend or a foe at the same time. With the inception of mass production in 1940s, the antibiotics have been used to treat numerous diseases caused by bacteria. In the initial years of 1950s to 1960s, the antibiotics were developed at a quicker rate than bacteria. However, the constraints started emerging in 1980s to 1990s when the reproduction of the antibiotics was limited to within classes. This gave rise to the concern of people developing resistance to antibiotic drugs (BBC, 1999). Some scholars see the slowdown in production of new antibiotics as a curse as it has lead to resistance or creation of mutants/ strains because the already existing drugs do not keep abreast with the resistance that bacterial microorganism have developed. Clardy, Fischbach & Currie (2009, p.437) notes that the initial invention of antibiotics like penicillin derived from fungus in combination with streptomycin, chloramphenicol and tetracycline has been rendered redundant as result of new strains of bacteria that are resistant to them. On the other hand, the reality has been that the antibiotic drugs have helped in curbing certain infectious diseases through it its selective ability of killing the intended bacterial cells (Schmidt, Smith & Sehnert, 2002, p.18 & 19).The above discourse has created a divided point of view on antibiotics in the medical sector on whether antibiotics should be used as continued means of treatment, be used sparingly or be abolished altogether. The aim of this paper is to interrogate the statement that is antibiotics friend of foe. 2.0 Antibiotics Development 2.1 What Antibiotics are Gallo, Lancini and Parenti (1995, p.1) defines antibiotics as microbial metabolites which have low-molecular-weight and at low concentrations hamper the growth of other microorganisms permanently or temporarily. This ability to curtail growth of other microorganisms indicates its importance in treatment process. Further in their definition, they observe that for a substance to be considered of low-molecular-weight, the molecule has to have defined chemical structure with a relative mass of at most a few thousand. This definition excludes other enzymes like lysozyme and complex proteins such as colicins that display antibacterial characteristics. In their discourse they note that if the above definition is to be followed rigorously then it would mean exclusion of antibiotics derived from chemical manipulation of natural antibiotic. However, this strict definition has been shelved giving rise to what is known as semisynthetic antibiotics (Gallo, Lancini and Parenti, 1995, p.2). This then boils to the fact that antibiotics are antimicrobial derived from microorganism or synthetically so as to inhibit growth of diseases caused by bacteria. 2.2 History of Antibiotics The ground breaking moment about antibiotics is related to Alexander Fleming work in 1929. He observed in his experiment that a mould growing in the same petri dish with taphylococcus killed the latter. This observation drove researchers in Europe and America to engage on the possibility of the concept being used as a treatment (Fisher, 2012). Clardy, Fischbach & Currie (2009, p.1) observes that the use of the term gained prominence in 1941 when Selman Waksan firsts used the word as a noun to define it as small molecule derived from a microbe and is used to curtail the growth of other bacterial microbes. From 1945 – 1955, a new dawn was ushered when antibiotic known as penicillin was the in thing in treating bacterial infections. By then, penicillin was being derived from fungus in combination with streptomycin, chloramphenicol and tetracycline which are produced by soil bacteria. The use of the same gained prominence during World War 2 and subsequently became accessible to the public (Fisher, 2012).From this simple beginning, there has been continued development of heterogeneous antibiotics which have different biosynthetic pathways, lineage and functions. 2.3The Fundamentals of Antibiotics Gallo, Lancini and Parenti (1995, p.2) in their literature indicates that there are over 10, 000 have been identified and their chemical structure established. The emerging observation is that antibiotics are chemically heterogeneous group with the only unifying factor being that they are organic solids (p.3). These molecules are likely to be composed of carbon and hydrogen only or a combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Apart from the later, the molecules can also contain other elements like sulphur, phosphorus and halogen atoms (Gallo, Lancini and Parenti, 1995, p.2). These possible compositions represent nearly all the organic chemical functional groups such as hydroxyl, carboxyl and nitrogen functions. Most of these antibiotics are derived from an array of microorganisms with 50% being derived from a bacterial order known as Actinomycetales. In this order, the most contributors is the genus known as Streptomyces. In examining modular biopsynthetic pathways of antibiotics, Clardy, Fischbach & Currie (2009, p.2) shows the heterogeneity in antibiotics. The case of synthesis in the laboratory differs with the natural synthesis which is longer and lineal in pattern. It is the difference in synthesis patterns and building blocks that gives rise to different families of antibiotics. For instance, penicillin pathway is composed of three protein domains. The first is to pick an amino-acid building block, pick the one to activate it and finally the one to install it into the growing chain. These three modules synthesises the tripeptide core of penicillin. Moreover, the sequence of the modules dictates the sequence of peptide chain. The same path can be applied to tetracycline, but with acetate as the building block and not amino acids. For the case of tetracycline, after the start two carbon building blocks are integrated into the expanding linear chain by the modules. This gives forth to lipid-like molecular instead of peptide-like as observed in the case of penicillin. The observation that can be derived from this observation is that from the originally identical building blocks, carbon can be processed in a variety of ways to produce outcomes with different features. 2.4 Major Medical Use of antibiotics and how they Functions In human beings, antibiotics are medically used to suppress the multiplication of injurious bacteria which causes disease in human body. The antibiotics functions in a selective manner by killing the desired bacteria and not the body cells. To be effective in the process of killing the intended bacteria, antibiotics work in numerous ways. The first is to stop cell wall synthesis. In a normal circumstances, intact cell wall of a bacteria aid in protecting the bacterium from filling with water and bursting. However, antibiotics can be used to achieve the opposite of this. The second is the ability of antibiotics to damage the cell memebrane. This compromises the permeability of the bacterium thus, allowing substances to move across indiscriminately whereas this should not be the case (Romich, 2005, p.214). The third is the ability of antibiotics to hinder protein synthesis by not allowing amino acids to be linked properly causing disruption in protein production by making transfer RNA to take different amino acids to the ribosomes. The basis of this approach is built on the fact that a bacterium acquires protein by sending an RNA copy of the DNA for a specific protein to this ribosome. The most inhibited of these is the prokaryotic ribosome. Moreover, at a higher concentration of antibiotics, ribosomes of mitochondria and chloroplast which are equally of prokaryotic ancenstry will be inhibited. For instance, aminoglycoside antibiotics have the capacity to bind to the 30S subunit. The other example is streptomycin which is able to bind to the 16S rNA near where the two ribosomal units join each other by distorting the A- site and hampers binding of incoming charged tRNA (Clark and Pazerdik, 2013, p.408). The fourth is the ability of some antibiotics to curtail metabolism of bacterium. Under this, the antibiotics stops the enzymes from acting on food substances or instead the antibiotics themselves bind to nutrient compounds needed by the bacterium and thus, signalling its death as result nutrient deficiency. The last is the ability of some of the antibiotics to impair production of nucleic acid. Those antibiotics that have ability to impair nucleic acid make it impossible for bacterium to divide or function properly (Romich, 2005, p.214).The slowing down of reproduction of newer generations of antibiotics and development of resistance by various diseases cause bacterial strains has elicited different responses in the medical science sector by creating an extreme observation where some see it as a foe while other see it as a friend. Schmidt, Smith & Sehnert (2002, p.15 & 16) raises a thought provoking statement by saying that the decline of infectious diseases in 1900 was not associated with invention of antibiotics. The issue of pharmaceutical antibiotics being seen as a foe arises from the fact that every living organism has ability to improvise ways of protecting itself when situation changes. The same can be said of bacteria. 2.5 Non Medical Use Apart from the medical uses, the concept of antibiotics in inhibiting growth of bacterial has been replicated and used in other economic sectors. The first application area that the concept has been developed is the animal feed industry. Stokstad et al., (1949) cited in Manten, (1963 p. 387) notes that the realisation that small quantities of antibiotics in animal feeds can stimulate faster growth in animals stroked mass application in America and there is no sight of it ending. In addition, the concept is applied to enhance feed efficiency in animals. According to (Mainous III & Pomeroy, 2010, p.383) nearly all clinical classes of antibiotics are allowed to be used in certain countries as feed additives. This strategy is mostly applied to animals like poultry, swine, cattle and aquaculture. For instance, antibiotics such as prophylactic are given to these healthy animals as non- therapeutic substances. However, the use of antibiotics as attracted the interest of numerous researches who have given different stand point about the approach (Manten, 1963 p. 388; Mainous III & Pomeroy, 2010, p.383). The second area of application has been in the area of household cleaning products. In the present world, more and more detergent manufactures are producing products that are able to kill bacteria and other pathogens that are as result of dirt. Hygienic conditions are appropriate in avoiding contamination and reduction of possibilities of contracting germs. Manufacturers of home detergents and soaps have capitalised on this need by producing cleaning products with antibacterial capacity. The use of this has equally attracted numerous works with differing outcomes (Mainous III & Pomeroy, 2010, p.383). The last application is the use of the antibiotics as food preservatives in beef and poultry. For instance, in America, since 1955 Food and Drug Administration Agency permitted the use of chlortetracycline on uncooked poultry (Durbin, 1956, p.1306). 2.6 Life without Antibiotics From the above discourse one can draw important observations. The use of antibiotics has attracted differing opinions. Antibiotics have played a crucial role in improving the well being of humanity since it was advanced to the public in 1840s. The advantages are seen not only in securing human health, but also in other sectors like animal feeds and detergents for household cleaning. This positive effect shows how significant the concept is for human beings. This means that if there such inventions, perhaps human being could have been still suffering from pandemics caused by bacteria if antibiotics were not to exist. However, the worrying trend is the lack of replacement for the antibiotics with bacteria have become resistant towards (Boseley, 2010). This creates a feeling of reverse in gains made in modern medicine. On the other hand, the concept has been attributed to creation of mutants that do respond to the initial treatments. The emergence of new strain can be equally threatening as it requires constant research on the best to tackle them. 3.0 Issues in Using Antibiotics There are various concerns that have been raised as result of using antibiotics either for medical purposes or non medical purposes. The greatest emerging theme is resistance by target bacteria leading to mutation and creation of new resistant bacteria which then threatens the sustainability of antibiotics as means of treating of preserving food. Manten (1963, p.387) postulate that resistance to drugs by micro organisms are acquired through adaptation or mutation. The theory of mutation as an avenue to resistance arises from the fact that once the bacteria subdivide it gives to a new generation that is acclimatised to the drugs. On the other hand, the basis of adaptation is built on the premise that body of living organisms are able to realign their internal systems and rhythms with changing situations so that they can survive (Manten, 1963, p.387). The reality is that bacteria get resistance to these antibiotics and since the rate of reproducing new generations of antibiotics have slowed down it means that those in market currently are not effective in treating diseases caused by bacteria. The next concern has been that antibiotic useful in certain region or country might be effective in treating the same disease in another region. The last one is that antibiotics create an environment that supports excessive growth of fungus since it kills intestinal flora which normally hampers the growth of fungus (Schmidt, Smith & Sehnert, 2002, p.18 & 19). Schmidt, Smith & Sehnert (2002, p.19) cites Flemming the father of antibiotics as stating that overuse of the same can cause resistance. The same is echoed certain scholars who project that in near future 80%-90% of bacteria would be resistance to antibiotics with the case example being gonorrhoea which used to be an easily treatable disease, but currently is not the case (Schmidt, Smith & Sehnert , 2002, p.20). The issue of misuse of technological advancements in the field of antibiotics has also been a concern. Majority rely on over the counter prescription without thorough diagnosis of is the problem. This has lead to creation of new strains of bacteria that are resistant to treatment (superbugs). Another over use that be stated is on ethical point of view where despite of various means of making animals mature faster human being are resorting to the use of antibiotics. The same can be said of their use in food preservation. It has been proven that the overuse of antibiotics in animal feeds has contributed to new strains based on the principle of evolution where it is not the strongest that survive, but those that are able to adapt to change (Manten, 1963, p.389). These observations then credit the fact that antibiotics are turning to be foes rather than friend as anticipated in earlier years. 4.0 Detrimental Effects 4.1 Destruction of Beneficial Flora Various medical literatures show that antibiotics interfere with the functioning of gut and bowel flora. The impact stem out of the fact that antibiotics have the capacity to create an imbalance in the digestive tract of human beings and thus, impeding the natural ability of digestive system (Bordenave, 2011, p.109). Apart from destruction of beneficial flora it the bowel, there are other myriad of problems associated with antibiotics. It is noted that over use of antibiotics in prolonged periods have long term health effects. The other concern is the possibility of one developing serious candida overgrowth and other intestinal imbalances that are likely to weaken the whole immune system of an individual. For instance, it noted that the IV antibiotic rocephin is associated with billiary sludge which if not handled well can hasten gall bladder attack (Rosner, 2004, p.23). 4.2 Contribution to cancer Medical researchers have tried to establish if there is link between extended use of antibiotics and cancer. There point of entry and route for their hypotheses is based on the fact that antibiotics have capacity to affect immune system and hamper the ability of intestinal microflora to metabolise. Rodriguez and Perez (2004) found out that there is significant relationship between use of antibiotics and higher chances of contracting breast cancer. The final submission that one can build from these side effects discussed is that antibiotics are slowly turning to be a foe rather than a friend. 5.0 Conclusion The goal of the paper was to interrogate the phrase that is antibiotics friends or foes. Out of this discourse emerge two points of view which are all critical. The undeniable fact is that antibiotics are critical and significant in guaranteeing the humanity better health. The wide application of the process since 1945 has enable human being overcome certain killer diseases which was not possible before then. However, the issue of resistance has shrouded a lot of controversy and people are now thinking of future without antibiotics. The other twist that emerges out of this application is that at times human beings have abused the process. Like how does one justify its use in preserving food whilst there are other numerous options that can be used or why do human use it in enhancing growth of animals while there are other options that can be applied to help achieve the same. This then calls for ethical and considerate use of antibiotics so that it can continue serving the humanity without creating new strains at a faster rate. This confirm two fears, if well used it is a friend and if overused it turns out to be a foe, but at the present the weight seems to lean on the fact that it is turning to be a foe. References BBC. 8 October, 1999. A Brief History of Antibiotics. Retrieved on 4 October, 2012 from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/background_briefings/antibiotics/163997.stm. Boseley, S. 12 August, 2010. Are you ready for a world without antibiotics? The Guardian. Retrieved on 4 October, 2012 from: http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2010/aug/12/the- end-of-antibiotics-health-infections. Bordenave, J. 2011. Change Your Diet, Change Your Health: How Food Can Maintain Our Health or Cause Disease. Bloomington, IN: Author House. Clardy, J., Fischbach, M. & Currie. C. 2009. The Natural History of Antibiotics. Retrieved on 4 October, 2012 from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2731226/pdf/nihms137565.pdf. Clark D. P. and Pazerdik, N. J. 2013. Molecular Biology. Waltham, MA: Elsevier. Durbin, C.g. 1956. Antibiotics in food preservation. America Journal of Public Health Vol. 46, pp.1306-1308. Evans, A. S. & Brachman, P. S. 1998. Bacterial Infections of Humans: Epidemiology and Control. New York: Plenum Publishers. Fisher, M. C. 1 October, 2012. History of Antibiotics. Retrieved on 4 October, 2012 from: http://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/treatments/pages/The- History-of-Antibiotics.aspx?nfstatus=401&nftoken=00000000-0000-0000-0000- 000000000000&nfstatusdescription=ERROR%3a+No+local+token. Gallo, G. G., Lancini, G. C. & Parenti. F. 1995. 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