Childhood Obesity: Symptoms and Causes - Term Paper Example

Childhood Obesity Insert Name Tutor Date Introduction Childhood obesity is a common medical condition that affects children and adolescents. Childhood obesity is defined as a child weighing above the normal weight for his or her age and the height. Childhood obesity is a risky condition because in most cases it starts the path to various health problems that may even be experienced in adulthood such as hypertension, diabetes and high cholesterol (CDC, 2012, pp2-6). The condition can also make the child have a low self-esteem as well as being depressed. The condition also has implications to the parents, the entire family and also to the community. This is because it is a disease and therefore ads to the disease burden in the family as well as in the community. Parents also have a great role in taking care of the obese children who at some point may not be able to do some activities that require flexibility. Parents may also have low self-esteem because of being associated with an obese child and this may also cause them depression (Griffiths, Parsons & Hill, 2010, p1). Childhood obesity is associated with the child’s diet and therefore one of the best strategies to reduce it is to improve on the child’s diet and also to promote physical activity on the child. A well balanced diet that is low in energy can help reduce the occurrence of childhood obesity. Different measures and references are used for measuring obesity in children. These include weight-for-age; weight-for -height for example the ideal weight for height and Z-scores, skin fold thickness, mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) and Body Mass Index (BMI) (Baur, Hazelton, & Shrewsbury, 2011, p635). Childhood obesity is a global problem mostly affecting the low and middle income nations especially people living in the urban settings. The prevalence of this condition is increasing at an alarming rate globally (WHO, 2013, pp1). According to a study reported by World Health Organization in 2010, there were estimated 42 million children under the age of five who were overweight. Almost 35 million were children in the developing countries. 92 million were at risk of becoming overweight. The prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity increased from 4.2 percent in 1990 to 6.7 percent in 2010. This trend is expected to continue and it is estimated that it may reach 9.1 percent in 2020 worldwide. Comparing Asia to Africa, the prevalence is lower in Asia with 5.9 percent in 2010 but the number of affected children is higher in Asia (Onis, Blossner & Borghoi, 2010, p1259). The condition of overweight if left unchecked, it results to obesity which prolongs to adolescence and eventually into adulthood. Bioecological Theory of Human Development The bioecological theory of human development is a lifespan approach to human development. The theory explains the bidirectional interactions between the process of human development and their surrounding contexts. The bioecological model was first proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner and Stephen Ceci in 1994 and is an extension of the original Bronfenbrenner’s theoretical model of human development. Bronfenbrenner came up with this model after realizing that a lot of focus was not put on the individual in other theories of human development which largely focused on only the context of development such as the environment (Lewthwaite, 2011, p10). The main aspects of this theory are Process- Person-Context-Time (PPCT) and their interactive relationships. The first component, which is the process, specifically looked at as proximal process explained as the interactions between the organism and the environment which takes place over time and are considered as the main mechanisms that produce human development. In one of his publications, he explains that human development takes place through progressive and more complex processes with reciprocal interaction between an active biopsychological human organism and the persons, symbols and objects that exist in the immediate external environment. For these interactions to be effective, it must take place on a fairly regular basis over an extended period of time (Tudge et al., 2009, p200). Regarding the component of the Person, the theory explains that there are three types of characteristics of the person which are considered as most influential in shaping their future development due to their capacity to determine the direction and power of the proximal processes through the course of life. The first type is the dispositions which have the capacity to set the proximal processes in motion towards a particular direction and continue to sustain that motion. The other type if bioecological resources which are ability, knowledge, skills and experience which are needed for proper functioning of the proximal processes at a particular stage of human development. The third is the demand characteristics which encourages or discourages reactions from the social environment that can promote or prevent the operations of the proximal processes. The combination of these three distinct characteristics results to patterns of person structure which can explain the differences in the direction and strength of the resultant proximal processes and their effects in human development (Tudge et al., 2009, p200). The context, which he uses to refer to the environment, is divided into microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem. The micro system refers to any environment where the developing individual spends quite some time engaging in activities and interactions. Such environments include the school, home or in a peer group. The mesosystem occurs when individuals spend time in more than one interrelating microsystem. The exossystem are environments which are not actually situated but have influence on development. An example is the behavior of a mother towards the child after a bad day at work. The mother’s work is an exosystem. The macro system is a context that is composed of a group of people who share common values or belief systems such as culture (Lewthwaite, 2011, p10) The final component is the time which is divided in micro, meso and macro levels. Microtime refers to continuity versus discontinuity in the constant occurrences if proximal process. Mesotime is the periodicity of these occurrences in broader time intervals while macrotime focuses on the changes in the expectations and events in the larger society as they relate to the outcome of human development in the course of life (Tudge et al., 2009, p201). This theory relates to child and adolescent developmental health outcomes in various ways. Firstly, it states that the person must be engaged in an activity for development to take place. This activity must also be done on a regular basis and must prolong for a period of time. This point focuses on the need for physical activity in growing children. Lack of physical activity has been identified as one of the causes of obesity during childhood. For health outcome of this activity to be realized, they must continue long enough so that they can be increasingly more complex. Basically, this emphasized on the need for continuous regular exercise in children for proper development to take place. Interrupted development results in poor health outcomes such as obesity in childhood (Damon & Lerner, 2006, p798). One of the key points in this theory is the bidirectional proximal processes. This refers to the processes of progressive and more complex interactions, which must be reciprocal (bidirectional). This interaction takes place between an active individual and the objects, symbols or other persons in the external environment. The importance of bidirectional proximal processes in children and adolescents is that they enable them to acquire knowledge and skills for engaging in activities with other children as well as on their own. Therefore for them to be bidirectional, the objects in the immediate environment must be in a kind that can attract attention, manipulations and exploration. The important of increasing complexity is for them to match with the growth of the child which is characterized by increase in their developmental capacities. It is therefore important for children to grow in an environment that promotes activity in order for them to realize good health outcomes. This is important particularly in preventing overweight and obesity (Krishnan, 2010, p10). Application of the Theory in Nursing Practice The bioecological theory of human development can be applied in a community setting to deal with the issue of childhood obesity. In a community setting, the theory can guide in identification of areas that have high impact on development of obesity and their intermediaries within various settings such as at home or in school. This can therefore guide in implementing interventions that prevent obesity by combining person focused and environmental components to come up with a comprehensive health promotion program targeting reduction in childhood obesity. This theory can also guide in determining the scope and sustainability and regularity of such an intervention and its outcome over a prolonged period of time. Basically this theory can form a basis for addressing the issue of childhood obesity in a community setting (Berns, R., 2009, p17). Such an intervention would require the collaboration between the family, the school and the entire community. The role of the family would be to help a child develop healthy habits that can help in preventing obesity. Parents should use their authority over the children to mold the eating habits of these children. Through family focused nursing care, the nurse should teach the parents on healthy eating habits as well as encouraging then to use their authority over the children in influencing their eating behaviors. For the very young children, the nurses should focus the discussion on healthy parenting behavior and also help the parents in identifying environmental factors that may promote obesity in children. For example the nurse can provide information on how to ensure that the environment is safe for free movements by the infants (Berkowitz & Borchard, 2009, pp 24-26). The nurses can also work with the schools and the community in promoting programs that will help in preventing childhood obesity through the local authorities or national advocacy. For example families can discuss their preferences with the school principals regarding obesity prevention programs at the school level. The Institute of Medicines provides some recommendations to the schools on obesity prevention through policies such as adequate physical education and nutritional standards for the meals provided in school. To improve the environment at the community level, health care providers can advocate for establishment of recreational centers for the younger children (Barlow & Expert Committee (2007, p 172-174). Conclusion With the increasing rates of childhood obesity in the world, it is important that the issues be taken seriously at both the family, community and at the national levels. The bioecological theory of human development however provides some insight on the areas that need to be focused on to ensure health development of children free from conditions such as obesity. The main areas are bidirectional interactions between children and the other people, objects and symbols in the environment. These interactions should be regular and for a prolonged period of time. This indicates the importance of physical activity for healthy child development. Interventions to prevent childhood obesity should however be conducted in collaboration with the family, schools and the entire community to ensure their sustainability. A lot of focus should also be put on the environment of the children. Bibliography Barlow, S.E. & Expert Committee (2007). Expert committee recommendations regarding the prevention, assessment, and treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity: Summary report. Pediatrics, 120, S164-S192. Berkowitz, B. & Borchard, M., 2009, Advocating for the Prevention of Childhood Obesity: A Call to Action for Nursing, The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, Vol 14 (1). Retrieved from http://www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Vol142009/No1Jan09/Prevention-of-Childhood-Obesity.html Krishnan, V., 2010, Early Child Development: A Conceptual Model, Presentation paper during Early Childhood Council Annual Conference, New Zealand. Tudge, J., Mokrova, I., Hatfield, B. & Karnik, R., 2009, Uses and Misuses of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory of Human Development, Journal of Family Theory & Review, Vol 1: 198-210. Damon, W., & Lerner, R., 2006, Handbook of Child Psychology, Theoretical Models of Human Development, John Willey & Sons, New York. Berns, R., 2009, Child, Family, School, Community: Socialization and Support, Cengage Learning, Boston. Lewthwaite, 2011, Applications and Utility of Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-ecological Theory, Manitoba Education Research Network (MERN), Issue 4. Onis, M., Blossner, M., & Borghoi, E., 2010, Global Prevalence and Trends of Overweight and Obesity among Preschool Children, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol 92:1257–64. WHO, 2013, Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health: Childhood Overweight and Obesity, retrieved on 25th January 2013 from http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/childhood/en/ Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2012, Childhood Obesity Facts, Retrieved on 25th January 2013 from http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/obesity/facts.htm Baur, L., Hazelton, B. & Shrewsbury, V., 2011, Assessment and management of obesity in childhood and adolescence, Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology, vol 8:635-645. Griffiths, L., Parsons, T. & Hill, A., 2010, Self-esteem and quality of life in obese children and adolescents: A systematic review, International Journal of Pediatric Obesity, Early Online, retrieved from http://www.ucl.ac.uk/paediatric-epidemiology/pdfs/17477160903473697.pdf. Read More