Womens Health Issues - Essay Example

WOMEN’S HEALTH ISSUES-FGM {Insert university’s name} {Insert instructor’s name} {Insert student’s name} August 15,2012. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………3 BACKGROUND………………………………………………………………………………..3 REASONS FOR FGM..................................................................................................................4 THE SOCIAL MODEL OF HEALTH ON FGM.........................................................................5 Education...........................................................................................................................5 Economic status.................................................................................................................6 Occupation.........................................................................................................................7 Gender................................................................................................................................7 CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................................9 REFERENCE...............................................................................................................................10 WOMEN HEALTH ISSUES-FGM INTRODUCTION There are many issues still affecting women in the 21st century one of them being female genital mutilation. FGM affects the social health of women an aspect that impacts on their access to medical care and also affect negatively on social, economic and their education level. This report will tackle the issue of FGM using the social model of health. The report is organized into various sections, the background, main body which focuses of the social determinants of health and FGM and the conclusion. BACKGROUND Female genital mutilation (FGM) also called female genital cutting or female circumcision entails all procedures that constitutes total or partial removal of the external parts of a woman’s genitals. According to DHS (2006), in 2001 alone about 100-140 women and girls were genetically mutilated. The age at which FGM is conducted ranges from few days after birth to adolescence. DHS (2006) report further indicates that about 2 million girls are at risk of FGM annually a custom that is widely practiced in Middle East and sub-Saharan parts of Africa. Human rights and gender activists have regarded the custom as brutal to the health of girl child and women as a whole. According to Anonymous (2003) the custom has not only caused injury but also death in the women and girls who have been forced to practice it. Ceasar (1998) in his study adds that FGM can cause birth effects children who are born by women o survive it. REASONS FOR FGM It is claimed that FGM is beneficial in terms of virginity, health and beauty. Burson (2007) in his study reports that FGM is traditionally performed to control and reduce the sexuality of a woman. The virginity of a woman is a prerequisite for marriage and it is highly believed that it is challenging to maintain sexual chastity and virginity without FGM. However the major reason why women practice FGM is the belief that men only marry circumcised women. The mentioned reasons are not only traditional but also religious. In the recent past Shandel & Abul (2000) the promoters, practitioners, supporters and guardians of FGM have widen their arguing that FGM not only enhances fertility and control excessive growth of the clitoris but also makes the women to be unfaithful wives. FGM also prevents and controls girls’ waywardness. The supporters further add that the clitoris is not only dangerous but also hinders intercourse, kills the baby during delivery and creates impotency. Finally, the clitoris is perceived as disgusting and ugly and therefore it should be removed. The mentioned justifications can be demystified and refuted at the same time. According to Department of Health and Ageing (2010) in the societies where aspects such as poverty and illiteracy prevail and where women hold the belief that FGM is universal, the social pressure associated with it is tight and hence the practice is justified in all perspectives. THE SOCIAL MODEL OF HEALTH ON FGM The social model of health is a framework that is theoretical and is applied in considering the health and well being of population and individual. This particular model holds the belief that improved well being and health is attained by emphasising on environmental and social determinants of health. The key advantage of this model is that it permits women to identify the essential factors that impact on health depending on the specific context (Keleher &Marshall 2002). It further assists them to come up with solutions for the problems they experience. This report will tackle the issue of FGM based on education, occupation, poverty and gender which are social determinants of health as per the social model. Education Women who are less educated and come from marginal groups that are prone to FGM as compared to their counterparts who are well educated and situated in urban areas. Lack or low levels of education results into discrimination an aspect that encourages FGM (Elsayed & Elamin, 2009). Furthermore less educated women are unaware of their rights and dangers of FGM. Even though men too practice circumcision in the same cultures, the form and the consequences of FGM are qualitatively distinct (Keleher & Marshall, 2002). FGM results into adverse psychological and physical consequences for girls and women an aspect that undermines their capacity to achieve social equality as they also lack adequate education. Additionally, after a woman has undergone FGM, she is considered ready for marriage. Due to the fact that these girls are married early before they complete their education, there are prolonged cases of terror, feelings of betrayal, fear of intimacy and intercourse (Keleher & Marshall, 2002).. The aforementioned puts women at a psychological and social disadvantage as compared to their male counterparts and hence their rights to integrity and dignity are violated as well as right to attain quality education. Economic status According to Keleher &Marshall (2002) poverty is one of the social determinants in FGM. The practice is commonly practiced in rural areas which are characterised by high levels of poverty. In addition, the most brutal thing is that the procedure is conducted with crude instruments that are unsterilized and without any form of anaesthesia because of lack of knowledge and resource to acquire recommended facilities/instruments for the practice. The instruments used include: broken glass, sharp stones, old razor blades or scapel. Mangan (2006) due to the fact that FGM are conducted in unhygienic condition using instruments which are unsuitable and by operators who have no medical knowledge, the practice have resulted into acute infection, fractured bones, severe haemorrhage, tetanus, septicaemia, haematocolpos (menstrual blood retention), childbirth complication and pain during sexual intercourse (Missailidis & Gebre-Medhin, 2007). This problem is not only as a result of poor education but also economic situation of the people, a reason why they use crude instruments. Additionally, in case of complication, the victims are not in a position to access good medical care an aspect that contributes to high death rates. During childbirth, women who have undergone FGM develop complications and there end up losing their lives due to high level of poverty characterised by poor health facilities and inability to access effective medical care. Consequently, FGM has more severe physical consequences than male circumcision – particularly relating to menstruation, painful intercourse, potential infertility and difficult and/or life-threatening childbirth. The mentioned interferes with women’s education as compared to their male counterparts. Occupation Burson (2007) in his study adds that FGM violates the right of a woman to family. The family is recognised as the natural unit of the society that is either destroyed or weakened by FGM. In most circumstances, girls who have undergone FGM do not further their education as they are married off after the practice. Due to the fact that FGM interfers with the education of women, they are likely not to hold high job levels in the society as compared to their male counterparts. This makes women to suffer from negative consequences such as painful sexual intercourse, high level of risks during childbirth and at times infertility. According to Missailidis & Gebre-Medhin, (2007) FGM renders women infertile in certain circumstances or makes it extremely challenging for them to give birth and hence they cannot fulfil their reproductive roles in the society. Furthermore, it is evident that women with no occupation a factor that is contributed by FGM are likely to suffer compared to their male counterparts and career women. This is due to the fact that women with no occupation are unable to access good medical care as they lack finance (Morison, Scherf, Ekpo, Paine,West, Coleman, & Walraven, 2001). On the other hand, they are ignorant of the negative impacts of FGM due to lack of exposure an aspect that endangers their physical, mental and social health. Hence occupation is one of the social determinants in FGM (Noah, 2009). Gender Another aspect in the social model of health is gender as a determinant. Women rights tend to be violated as compared to their male counterparts. Leye, Nienhuis & Temmerman (2007) in his study while considering the legality of FGM on young girls, draw the analogy between female and male circumcision. He points out that in both male and female, the victim is so young and despite being no positive consent, an active opposition too lacks. According to studies carried out by Khaled & Cox (2000) male circumcision which is practised by certain African, Muslim and wholly by Jewish communities has not experienced any form of opposition. However Little (2003) in his study points out that the analogy is misleading because the two operations have different effects on the health of the victims. Male circumcision has beneficial consequences mainly from the personal hygiene perspective while the FGM has no such benefits. Additionally, it is evident that both are not irreversible, male circumcision does not result into any form of health risk as compared to FGM which result into severe medical and life-threatening conditions to the life of the victim. Missailidis & Gebre-Medhin (2007) in his study further indicated that if FGM is conducted in a young girl, the child is denied the right to retain her capacity to enjoy and experience sexual pleasure. The mentioned is oppressive; the girl fails to experience sexual pleasure and hence is incapable of making decision on what she is losing. Additionally, FGM has more severe physical consequences than male circumcision – particularly relating to menstruation, painful intercourse, potential infertility and difficult and/or life-threatening childbirth. In most cases, FGM is carried out on girls who are below 18 years of age this makes the rights of the victims to be violated as not only children but also women. After the practice, the girls are regarded as old enough to get married while their uncircumcised and male counterparts continue with their education (Department of Health and Ageing, 2010). Additionally, uncircumcised women are subjected to ridicule by their male counterparts who holds virgin with high esteem an aspect that makes women to go for the practice despite the risks associated with it. Child marriages across sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia approximately more than 30% of women between the age of 15 and 19 years are married after undergoing FGM. based on the Nepal statistics more than 40% of girls aged below 15 years is married. Based on the world wide statistics, 14 million girls between 15 and 19 years are married each year an aspect that is closely linked to FGM (Department of Health and Ageing, 2010). Early marriage which is linked to FGM causes not only infant mortality but also maternal mortality. Due to the fact that girls drop out of school after FGM to get married, they are unfamiliar with the necessary reproductive health issues. Moreover, due to the unsterile instruments used in carrying FGM, most girls are at risk of contracting HIV as compared to their male counterparts. According to WHO statistics about 17-22% of girls aged between 15 to 19 years in sub-saharan Africa alone are HIV positive as compared to their male counterparts that stands at 3-7% (Noah, 2009). According to Shandel and Abul (2000) young women often have limited freedom of movement an aspect that makes them not to be in a position to obtain quality healthcare not only because of distance and expenses involved but also as a result of restrictions from their spouses. The mentioned barriers are likely to increase the risks of maternal morbidity and mortality for young women who have practiced FGM. CONCLUSION Based on the social model of health, it can be argued that the diverse effects of FGM are linked to poverty, occupation, gender and education. Women tend to be affected more by FGM as compared to their male counterparts who undergo circumcision. Additionally, poverty and less education make the practice to be conducted in unhygienic condition using crude and unsterilized instruments. Education has further made women not to understand the disadvantages of FGM. Studies have indicated that women who are educated tend to shun the practice than their counterparts. This is because they know their rights. REFERENCES Anonymous. (2003). Genital and sexual mutilation of females. WIN News, 29, 22-26. Fahmy, A., El-Mouelhy, M., & Ragab, A. (2010). Female genetic mutilation/cutting and issues of sexuality in Egypt. Reproductive Health Matters. 18(36), 181 – 190. Burson, I. (2007). Social Work and Female Genital Cutting: An Ethical Dilemma. Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, 4(1). Department of Health and Ageing (2010). National Women’s Health Policy 2010. Canberra, Australia: The Department of Health and Ageing. Retrieved from http://www.health.gov.au/womenshealthpolicy Department of Human Services (2004). Integrated Health Promotion: A Practice Guide for Service Providers, Primary and Community Health Branch: Public Health Group, Victoria. Elsayed, D.M, & Elamin, R.M. (2009). Medical Ethics: What is it? Why is it important? Sudanese Journal of Public Health. 4(2): 284-287. Keleher, H. and Marshall, B. (2002). A Framework for Strengthening Health Promotion in Community Health: Melbourne: Deakin University. Khaled, M,A and Cox, C. (2000). “Female Genital Mutilation” Trauma 2000. Leye, P, Nienhuis, C, and Temmerman. L (2007). “Healthcare in Europe for Women with Genital Mutilation” Healthcare for Women International. Oxford: Oxford university press. Little, C.M. (2003).Female genital circumcision: medical and cultural considerations. J Cult Divers. 10(1): 30-34. Mangan, R. (2006).Rights and wrongs: intercultural ethics and female genital mutilation. Melbourne Journal of Politics. Mason, C. (2001). Exorcising excision: Medico-legal issues arising from male and female genital surgery in Australia. Journal of Law and Medicine (Australia) 9(1), 58 – 67. http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/mason1/ Missailidis, K. and Gebre-Medhin, M. (2007).“Female Genital Mutilation in Eastern Ethiopia” The Lancet. Morison, L., Scherf, C., Ekpo, G., Paine, K., West, B., Coleman, R., & Walraven, G. (2001). The long-term reproductive health consequences of female genital cutting in rural Gambia: a community-based survey. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 6(8), 643-653. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2001.00749.x Noah, Y. A. (2009). Female circumcision/female genital cutting in Nigeria: Couples" attitudes, women"s empowerment, and acute obstetric outcomes. Ph.D. 3356973, The Johns Hopkins University, United States -- Maryland. 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