Sociology of Health - Feminism and Marxist Theory on Health and Illness - Essay Example

Feminism and Marxist Theory on Health and Illness Student’s Name Institutional Affiliation Feminism and Marxist Theory on Health and Illness Introduction Sociology of health and illness was not embraced until the mid-19th century. In the 1960s and 1970s, health and illness sociologist focused on castigating the traditional ideas on medicine. 20 years later, the existing biomedical model was also questioned in its ability to provide a holistic perspective on health and illness (Larkin, 2011). Currently, sociology on health and illness has been recognized professionally and academically. The sociological aspect of health and illness is concerned with the social, cultural and historical elements that influence health and illness. It examines the non-organic manifestations of a disease and their relationship to the society. It is important because the perception of illness and health, excluding their organic presentation, varies widely in different parts of the world (Bilton et al., 2004). Even though medical practitioners may expect patients to visit them on numerous occasions over body malfunction, this is not the norm in most nations. Sociology supplements and augments the science based biological model of disease that asserts that diseases are a consequence of a malfunction in the human body. The biological model necessitates thorough scrutiny of the body or simply the “medical gaze” (Bilton et al., 2004). Among the various sociological theories that underpin health and illness include the Marxist and the feminist theory. The Marxist Theory Marxist theory revolves around a capitalistic society. It explains the role that the dominating economic structure in the society plays in molding the relations that typify social institutions. It also elaborates the impact of the economic structure on power and inequality. In capitalist societies, medicine being among the many social institutions is forged by capitalist ideas (Larkin, 2011). Sociologist that have contributed to the Marxist theory on medicine includes Vicente Navarro. Navarro purported that medicine has four capitalistic features (Bilton et al., 2004). First, he claims that medicine has undergone a transformation from an individual skill to a corporate activity. Secondly, current practice in medicine is hierarchical and has become progressively specialized. Thirdly, Navarro also envisages medicine as a broad wage-labour force encompassing the pharmaceutical industry employees too. Lastly, he argues that medical practitioners have been "proletarianised" as managerial and administrative oriented staffs are now responsible for the provision of health care (Bilton et al., 2004). The four features imply that medicine is now like any other product in the market available for buying and selling at a profit. The finance and corporate sector form the major capitalist interests. In the finance sector, provision of private insurance has become a profit based activity. Similarly, the trade in pharmaceutical drugs and medical diagnostic instruments constitute the capitalist corporate sector (Bilton et al., 2004). Medical systems are being directed and exploited by profit minting corporations that have also monopolized their control. Marxist add that the medical profession is being used as a tool to socially control the working class, individualize and depoliticize diseases (White, 2009). Expensive secondary medical procedures are being used instead of the standard procedures to maximize profits. Furthermore, a class structure is formed among health care practitioners such that most doctors are upper-middle class, privately educated male students while nurses are commonly lower-middle class females (White, 2009). According to Marxists, health problems are associated with stressful, unhealthy working environments. They argue that health problems are a result of inequity in social structure and class disfavor orchestrated under capitalism. The morbidity and mortality patterns are closely linked to occupation particularly the working class in industries. For instance, carcinogenic substances from industries are said to account for over 10 percent of malignancies affecting males (Bilton et al., 2004). Even though accidents occurring in workplaces are considered a result of human error, research shows that such accidents are a reflection of immense pressure on employees to hurriedly, but efficiently finish tasks in environments full of risks (Bilton et al., 2004). Karl Marx conception of a capitalist society asserts that there is the minority bourgeoisie who have privatized the means of production, and the majority proletariat who offer their labor at a fee (Larkin, 2011). The two have an unequal relationship as the proletariat are exploited by the bourgeoisie as the latter maximizes profits. This societal inequity results in conflicting differences in class, hence, the “conflict theory”. Marx’s ideas in conflict theory are in contradiction to the structural functionalism’s position on society as the latter argues that individuals in society relate via shared values and norms (Kaminiskas & Darulis, 2007). Conflict theory insinuates that values and norms are for the bourgeoisie who impose them on the proletariat to perpetuate their vantage position in the society (Cockerham & Scambler, 2010). The growing conflict consequently results in changes in the social patterns of the medical fraternity. According to Navarro, the growth of medicine is paralleled by an expanding inability to meet the medical needs of the society, therefore, plunging the system into a crisis (Bilton et al., 2004). Even though an increasing amount of money and resources are allocated for the provision of health care, more individuals in societies are experiencing the ineffectiveness of the system. States have deflected the allegations of crisis on individual health care consumers, and that individuals have to become discerning consumers and enroll in private medical insurance to relieve the state the duty of providing universal medical care. Marxism Critique Marxism has its limitations since not all health problems are a result of conflict-related issues. Being healthy or becoming ill may not always be a consequent of class struggle (Kaminiskas & Darulis, 2007). Nations in Eastern Europe that experimented Marxism found the method unable to deliver. There was a 30-year drop in life expectancy of males in these countries (Cockerham & Scambler, 2010). Marx's social change predictions have not been accomplished, and his sociological analysis has lost some popularity (Larkin, 2011). Marxists have also been accused of overlooking genuine significant improvements in the health sector by propagating contemporary capitalism. The measures advocated for by Marxists do not resolve peoples’ health care bottleneck. Moreover, most Marxists have downplayed how gender has been affected in health and medicine as patriarchal control of the medical sector continues (Bilton et al., 2004). Feminism Feminism embodies thoughts and social movement that dignify gender equality and advocate for its applicability in all sectors of life. It elaborates the existing sexual inequalities in the society and how this is related to the historical oppression and exclusion of women from economic activities in our society (Germov & Hornosty, 2009). The argument posited by most feminist is that the patriarchal system has allowed men to be superior and subordinate women (Larkin, 2011). Renowned feminist theories include radical, Marxist and liberal feminism. Marxist Feminism Just like the Marxist theory, Marxist feminism links capitalism to the unequal distribution of opportunities and power between women and men (Lay, 2007). Although women equally contribute to capital production, their effort is not well appreciated as they are exploited by capitalist both in the public domain and families and homes. Women are seen as slaves that provide ‘free labour' and reproduces the workforce required by capitalist at no cost (Larkin, 2011). Women reproduce workforce by giving birth to children who shall be future workers and by catering for their husbands and children who are frequently the laborers under capitalism. Women’s reproduction is controlled by medicine hence fortifying assertions that medicine significantly contributes to capitalism. A guaranteed future workforce will provide sufficient labour supply and allow a reduction in wages. Marxist feminists have been criticized for emphasizing on capitalism as the source of inequality and neglecting the role played by patriarchy. This gave rise to radical feminists. Radical Feminism Unlike Marxist feminists, radical feminist accent that men are the primary perpetrators of exploitative injustices towards women. Patriarchy, they say, is founded on the basic biological differences between the two sexes (Larkin, 2011). Regardless of the culture or historical period, men physically and sexually dominate and mold society to their advantage rather than meeting both men and female needs. Most medical doctors are men while most nurses are female (White, 2009). Therefore, nursing, a career that entails more physical patient management, has been labelled a female career. Radical Feminists say that women’s freedom can only be attained by the women themselves. They have to fight for the control of their fertility and body from males. However, radical feminism does not recognize the variations in how men and women's biological differences are interpreted across different cultures and time. For example, in the 19th century during the two world wars, the biological inferiorities associated with women were ignored in the requirement to fill workforce gaps occasioned by the deficit of men from jobs labelled masculine (White, 2009). In addition, these feminists overlooked the fact that exploitation and oppression do not characterize all gender relationships. Liberal Feminism Liberalism requires that the treatment or handling of different individuals should be based on their efforts and not their sex or heredity. This forms the basis of equal rights for both sexes in liberal feminism (Lay, 2007). Liberal feminists recommend achievement of equality through use of legal structures in the society (Willis, 1984). Rather than radically changing gender relationship in support of feminism, liberal feminists urge the organization of campaigns to eliminate all political, legal, social and economic obstacles that hinder women from having equal opportunities and rights as men (Graff, 2013). The level of penetration that campaigns have achieved in our societies is still debatable since we still have most nursing homes and care institutions run by women. These institutions are some of the less profitable sectors in medicine (White, 2009). Some research on health related topics have been done under the disguised aim of alleviating social oppression against women but on closer scrutiny, they were only aimed at obtaining practical results for the researcher’s academic recognition (Annandale, 2009). The researcher’s excuse for using women subjects was that women were more willing to participate in most research compared to male subjects. Most of such studies are done by men and rarely focus on the hierarchical organization in hospitals that confer power to males. This only serves to root capitalistic ideals raised by Marxists and demonstrates radical feminism in health. Conclusion Sociology in health and illness has unearthed practices in the health sector that benefit a small fraction of the population while oppressing a majority of individuals. Marxism and feminism exposit the inequality and segregation in the health sector. Capitalistic practices are evident in health and illness as the health sector is becoming more privatized, and corporate oriented. The great emphasis put on reproduction studies such as obstetrics and gynecological by male health practitioners appears genuine though it ingrains the domestic reproductive and family care cultural role associated with women. 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