The Contribution of Social Theories to Contemporary Sociology - Essay Example

Aspects of Contemporary Sociology Contemporary sociology may be defined as the most recent development in the field of studies that revolves around the science that develops within the juxtaposition of public life and subsequent personal conduct in terms of geographical and other cultural boundaries. In this context, there are a variety of theories that have emerged as strong influences on the development of contemporary sociology and its basic framework. This study will outline and discuss these theories in terms of this influence on contemporary sociology. (Ward, 1902) Functionalism The first of these theories is functionalism. Functionalism as a theory emerged in Europe in the 19th Century. (Hoult, 1969) As a concept that emerged in the social sphere, functionalism has been described by a variety of scholars and social thinkers like Talcott Parsons and Herbert Spencer among others, in context of need based theories and behaviourism that has emerged in accordance with the same. The subtle underscore of behaviourism comes from the pattern adopted by every individual in terms of reaching out towards a certain course of action in one’s everyday life to attain the achievement of those needs. This has triggered functionalism to be defined in terms of an individual’s basic make up in context of the needs he or she is set to achieve as per the social strata that he or she operates in. In this regard, every individual can be associated with certain traits and functions that revolve around the same in various spheres like the public and personal. This defines the meaning of functionalism as a theory that revolves around setting a certain standard for performance through the study of behaviourism as its basic premise. Accordingly if one is take the behaviourism model to define functionalism’s influence on the evolution of contemporary sociology, functionalism may be defined as a study of the elements that promote harmonious relations between the various functional spheres and the individuals who operate within the same. (Parsons et al, 1976) As prescribed by Herbert Spencer, functionalism can be studied within the “evolutionary model” he propounded in order to demonstrate how functionalism has strong contextual significance for changing times. The evolutionary model is dependant on the principles that guide social action at various levels. These principles, in turn, are guided by the need to keep evolving until the mosaic called society and the various sections that form this mosaic, find a fitting recipe with all the ingredients in the correct proportions so as to promote harmonious functioning of these sections towards a common and larger goal. (Turner, 1985) It has been derived as a basic element of contemporary sociology on the basis of its ability to propose ways that will help achieve equality and neutrality on a larger scale across various boundaries. In today’s world of emerging globalisation trends that are increasingly focussing on peace and better management of world resources as a whole, there is a wide scope to exert pressure for better performance of such resources with an emphasis on more equitable distribution, so as to promote the need for functionalism in all quarters of contemporary sociology. With larger doses of influence from the schools of thought followed by Durkheim and Max Weber, much of Talcott Parson’s work is an off shoot on the principles of the normative regulation of social action for the promotion of functionalism for the achievement of role play that will affect people on a larger scale. Parson’s theories of functionalism hold good in contemporary sociology owing to the emphasis on role play for a more organised approach towards the achievement of appropriate social action towards various goals. (Parsons, 1976) Thus, in effect Parsons speaks of social action as the ends and not the means, instead of goals. This shows that his perspective revolves around the fact that in the world of rapid changes, there is always room for the modification, or complete eradication of certain goals. In this regard, his theories have had special influence on the emergence of contemporary sociology owing to the fact that there is a recognition of the importance of actions and the constant evolution of the same towards creating a fitting reflection of the times and aspirations that we are living in. This thought process has been supported by Robert Merton, who has affiliated himself with the theories of Parson’s and Durkheim. Merton is a strong believer of functionalism and subscribes to the notion that for any action to be effectively socially there must be a certain brand of structural functionalism in the institutions that act as social mouthpieces in the public sphere. His theory of deviance promotes the idea that for every unique role played by the individual, there must a unique sense of functionalism attached with the operation sphere of various institutions. In this case, the elements of conformity and retaliation further support the theories of power and conflict resolution for the promotion of functionality in the development of appropriate choices of the various social alternatives. (Merton, 1957) This has special relevance in case of contemporary sociology, which is derived from this school of thought that essentially separates the active from the passive efforts in the social sphere in order to reach a consensus on the significance of unique roles in shaping functionalism as a deliberate characteristic at various points of times. Functionalism has also contributed to the emergence of various trends in feminist and structural theories that have been instigated by changing times as well as the evolution of contemporary sociology. (Hoult, 1969) As a by product of these trends, contemporary sociology has seen a subtle change in the theories of functionalism to imbibe the characteristics of various new sections of society and the influence of the same on the operation of the public sphere. Further, contemporary sociology depends largely on the challenges faced by the evolving times by these theories. Functionalism is one of the basic theories that have guided the public domain with its roots in the structural framework of a variety of agencies and institutions. Yet, contemporary sociology has adapted the theory of functionalism at a very basic level where the level of efficiency of various theories in practice needs to be measured. In this case, functionalism has been found to play a major role in defining the principles that guide the study and development of contemporary sociology to accommodate changes in the dynamic global environment. Thus, the major contribution of functionalism as far as contemporary sociology is concerned lies in its definition of the ideological parameters that guide basic human behaviour at a social level of operation and perception. Neo Marxism As the opposite of Marxism, Neo Marxism finds its roots in Great Britain and other European countries during the 1970's. (Avineri, 1968) Carried forth from the basic theories of functionalism, this theory may be described as one that has to do with the institutionalized form of social action. This social action depends on the information transmitted regarding the framework within which this action revolves and emanates from. Thus, Neo Marxism is concerned mainly with communication within the social sphere. In this case, it has been believed that to be an effective voice for society at large. Neo Marxism must appeal to a person at a creative level and trigger a reaction wherein he or she feels instigated enough to express thoughts freely. Thus, without a certain level of freedom of expression as opposed to the purely communist ways of thinking, Neo Marxism thrives on the premise that communication and free flowing lines that promote the same are a must for any social development. In contemporary sociology, this has been defined as an important parameter for the measurement of the efficiency of public and political tools when it comes to catering for the needs and aspirations of a person in his or her public life. (Bell, 1976) Effective communication is best achieved through clarity regarding various ideas as well as ideals. Considering the fact that language and culture are the most important constraints in individual expression, there is a strong consensus that ideals need to be shaped with the help of clear demarcations between the operational sections that underlines each society. Politics and economy, for example, are distinct areas of operation; yet political economy is a completely different concept from these two. Neo Marxism sets these boundaries with a focus on the ideologies that shape the needs associated with the various operational spheres. (Bell, 1976) In this way, Neo Marxism has been a positive influence on the field of contemporary sociology owing to the fact that the latter is a composite of people’s aspirations, as against prevailing trends. Further, contemporary sociology believes that every class of people may not necessarily understand the same language and instead of segregating social actions and goals, there must be an integration of sorts. Neo Marxism provides this brand of integration through a focus on the different ways of expressing the same thing. In this way, it uses the Marxist ideal of equality at a very grass root level. Further, unlike Marxism it recognizes the differences in perspectives and understanding by applying the same to social action in various spheres. In this case, Marxism has associate words like ‘false’ and ‘fake’ with ideals. (Gilligan, 1982) On a more realistic note, Neo Marxism works at a more basic level by identifying the aspirations first and putting ideologies in accordance with the same at a later stage. Thus, contemporary sociology has emerged on this basis through recognition of the fact that there is a need for the creation of new ideas that will form a common language through the use and differentiation between ‘ism’ and ‘ology’; so as to make sure that anything and everything associated with these words as extensions will serve the purpose of various sections through a common predominant ideology in the expression of the same. (Screpanti, 1993) Further, these terms also help recognize the competing ideologies that form the demarcations in terms of class and societal sections. These competing ideologies may then be coded before they are defined and prioritized. Contemporary sociology also represents ideals that are concerned with individual expressions in terms of the material aspirations as well as the economic realities and pre conceived notions that operate in tandem with the same. Neo Marxism has had a significant share in helping contemporary sociology evolve along these lines owing to its focus on theories like dialectical materialism and economic determinism. (Screpanti, 1993) Contemporary sociology has emerged as a field that attaches great importance with the various levels at which these theories operate in one’s daily life in context of ground realities. Thus, dialectical materialism is a theory that has influenced it greatly in terms of acting as a social commentator when it comes to defining one’s realm of functionalism. Ideals have thus been positioned accordingly to evolve a separate sphere for the functions of carrying out pre ordained economic status which is deeply connected with the social level that an individual operates on. This economic determinism has helped define the various quarters where coordination is needed for better role play according to the ideals of contemporary sociology. (Avineri, 1968) As a means of psychological liberation, Neo Marxism differs greatly from the earlier form of Marxism. (Avineri, 1968) This has greatly contributed to the development and growth of contemporary sociology, where it has been believed that every individual has a free will and the freedom to express the same as he or she deems fit. Thus, this brand of individualism is another source which can promote coordination through an integration of the personal aspirations with the larger ideals for public gain in the social sphere. Apart from driving social action, Neo Marxism also works well in today’s world of diminishing boundaries with the advent of the information age, where it is imperative to understand the ways of expression in various corners of the globe to create better awareness and social bonds. In this regard, it has been seen that contemporary sociology has been born basically out of the need to break out of tried and tested theories in order to find a niche where it can simplify the modes of expression in order to create a greater outreach of the players operating in the public domain. This has been triggered by a strong influence of Neo Marxism, which creates avenues for enhanced modes of free expression as well as the need for evolving theories that cater to the positioning of specific ideals for specific sections. (Bell, 1976) Thus, Neo Marxism’s greatest contribution to the evolution of contemporary sociology lies in the fact that it has identified the platform for using ideals as a realistic form of expression where social issues and challenges facing better coordination are concerned. Frankfurt School The Frankfurt School of Critical Theory has been hailed as an important school of thought with a long association with Marxism. (Wiggershaus, 1994) In this case, it is imperative to start out by acknowledging the fact that ideals are strongly linked with philosophy. While most social commentators have held that social philosophy has to be born out of a certain brand that departs from idealism, it is also true that the success of this social philosophy depends greatly on the direction of social action towards a fundamental understanding and criticism of all that is wrong in society in terms of the trends in the social sphere. (Turkle, 1992) This has led to the emergence of the Frankfurt School which has had a special influence on the evolution of contemporary sociology. The origins of the Frankfurt School can be traced back to the year 1923, when a professor and political scientist of the University of Frankfurt named Felix Weil decided to start the Institute of Social Research to spread his penchant for Marxism and the notions contained in his dissertation revolving around the socialisation of the economy. (Turkle, 1992) This in turn brought him in contact with several fellow scholars who were as interested in studying the nuances and elements of social change and the dynamics attributed to the same. These scholars included Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Erich Fromm and various other notable people who came to be associated with this group. (Turkle, 1992) The interesting part about this association was the fact that most of these people were either literary critics, or philosophers and even musicologists and psychologists. They had come together to form a group that would help study the dynamics that accentuated change in order to find the elements in the various aspects of an individual’s life that could reveal a certain behavioural pattern in the reactions and social actions that emerged thereof. While this institute succumbed to the emerging National Socialism when it was forced to seek refuge in Geneva and New York in the 1930s, there has been a strong influence of this school of thought and its theories on contemporary sociology. (Turkle, 1992) This has brought various social scientists and scholars of the modern age face to face with tools that are truly revolutionary in their conceptualisation and implications. One of these tools is critical theory. The second wave of critical theory has been represented in contemporary sociology even after the institute ceased to exist in 1962. (Turkle, 1992) Contemporary sociology has drawn from the cultural nuances of the study of societal issues and action as far as the critical theory is concerned. The Frankfurt School lay less emphasis on mainstream politics and attached more importance to the study of cultural boundaries as significant entities in terms of a movement towards the conceptualisation of notions that have to do with the same. Contemporary sociology is an important by product of the Frankfurt School in many ways. For starters, the institute affiliated itself with a variety of elite people who were well informed and aware of the cultural realities in various parts of the world. Their sensibilities have evolved over the last 50 odd years even after the disintegration of the institute, in order to usher in a phase of globalisation where the study and exchange of ideologies in a cultural context may become common occurrence. (McLaughlin, 1994) With its emphasis on the development of channels for the transmission of ideas that have emerged as trends in the modern world, the critical theory that has emanated from the Frankfurt School of thought is an important base upon which contemporary sociology has been built. Contemporary sociology has to do with the factual and realistic analysis of the various trends that have cut across cultural boundaries to define a more wholesome society applicable to any and every part of the world. The Frankfurt School has assisted this function by allowing the scope, through its written and recorded work, for these kinds of studies that will further facilitate better integration among various areas. With a focus on the troubled areas and finding a common thread that will bind these areas together besides helping these areas offer solutions for each other’s troubles, contemporary sociology has been seen to draw heavily from the Frankfurt School. The very conception of contemporary sociology is a matter of the analysis of existential issues that face people as a matter of tradition. These notions have been embodied by Fromm through an influence from the works of Marx, Weber, as well as Freud. (Fromm, 1970) Through his work, Fromm has tried to present perspectives that are more along critical lines when it comes to studying existential issues arising out of cultural instigations. In doing this, Fromm acknowledges the fact that post modernist theories are but a composite of the various criticisms that have emanated from the quarters of arts and sciences which find some sort of significance in every individual’s life by way of profession, personal pursuits and even national resources and strengths. Scholars like Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno focussed on the research and analysis aspect by trying to generate and define the most unlikely parameters that would eventually help evolve the post modernist theories that are a part and parcel of contemporary sociology. (McLaughlin, 1996) In doing so, they set the stage for contemporary sociology by demonstrating how social parameters are the most significant influences on public and political life. Also, most of these scholars have shown an affinity towards proving that politics alone is not the crux of social trends and environment – arts and science are an important part of the analysis that helps identify the factors that define the social structures within which critical analysis takes place to form more valuable and wholesome insights into problems. (Wiggershaus, 1994) In this way, contemporary sociology has emerged as a field that takes into account and caters for influences outside the purely political or economic arena when it comes to determining the focus of social analysis. Symbolic Interactionism The final theory we are to study is that of symbolic interaction. Contemporary sociology has basically evolved as a field that has to do with how people understand each other in context of the perspectives formed on social actions, reactions and trends. Therefore, communication is the key word. In this case, the demonstration of symbolism when trying to communicate is the norm of the say in terms of trends like subtle interactions for more qualitative communication. (Mills, 1984) Symbolism in a field that has to do with the study of human subjects and the existential issues that form their perspectives will draw heavily on symbolism. This symbolism comes from the various cultural and social elements that surround individuals. Symbolism in the various kinds of interactions that a person indulges in comes from a desire to put across certain aspirations and intentions. (Schafer, 1989) Therefore, Symbolic Interactionism has been a major influence on the evolution of contemporary sociology in the sense that it caters for the more subtle details in case of research and analysis. The mode an individual makes use of in order to interact depends largely on his or her frame of mind as well as the cultural and social realities surrounding him or her. This sense of culture based interaction comes from a history of intellectual and symbolic modes of transmission of information. (Dingwall, 2003) Social and cultural histories have a large role to play in determining the nature and quality of the interaction among various groups. Contemporary sociology has been influenced by these theories in terms of evolving as a study of group interactions that have a widespread effect on the formation of perspectives. This in turn leads to a certain amount of dynamism in the operation of Interactionism at various levels. Therefore, contemporary sociology has emerged as a field that imbibes the theories surrounding symbolism. Thus is owing to the fact that in today’s world of shrinking boundaries and growing interaction between various groups and troubled areas, there is a consensus that effective communication depends largely on the demonstration of a certain degree of sensitivity when dealing with people from a variety of cultural and social backgrounds. This will trigger the need to take into account various expressions during interaction which will amount to symbolism. Contemporary sociology is a composite of these notions as propagated by Symbolic Interactionism. Communication as defined within the framework of contemporary sociology is a function that operates in the multi layered world that we thrive in today. These layers represent the various quarters and sections of society with influences from politics, socio economics, arts as well as sciences and the emergence of national and global identities of specific areas based on resources and strengths. (Schafer, 1989) Contemporary sociology takes these layers into account as an integral part of its research and analysis structure. These layers are the various levels of operation that can be associated with certain symbols which in turn come into play during interaction between the layers. (Ward, 1902) Symbolic Interactionism in contemporary sociology is all about playing a certain role and carrying out a certain function. These roles and functions have come to symbolise trends and patterns in various parts of the society, nations as well as the world as a whole. The conceptualisation of these symbols in order to carry out effective communication forms the basis of contemporary sociology. In this regard, the perception of the self in terms of personal intentions and the society that one operates in is an important part of the concept of Symbolic Interactionism. (Dingwall, 2003) This has been demonstrated by the eminent American social philosopher and psychologist, George Mead, in his conception of individual perception. He defined the terms “I” and “Self” as important aspects in the conception of Symbolic Interactionism as a whole. Mead has propagated a model wherein the self is the most important entity when engaged in communication of various kinds. In this context, Mead has successfully created two separate entities to study these aspirations which in turn affect the prevailing social climate. These are “I” and “Me”. In the separation of these, Mead has managed to show that “Me” refers to group interactions, while “I” is born strictly out of the personal. In doing so, Mead has created the symbols that will help judge the levels at which these intentions operate and the degree to which they are capable of affecting life in the social sphere. (Dingwall, 2003) This perception of self revolves around the determination of various factors and influence that create a scope for defining the functions that an individual carries out at various levels of social and symbolic interaction. In this case, the study of intentions becomes an important parameter using which social scientists can judge and determine emerging trends. The theories propounded by Mead are revolutionary in the sense that they has set parameters such as symbols affected by the changes and aspirations in one’s life as the measure of the dynamic environment within which contemporary sociology thrives as a tool for research and analysis. (Dingwall, 2003) In this regard, the function of symbols comes into play with a juxtaposition of intentions and the social climate prevailing when these intentions are born. This is also an important tool for the formation of public policies and the study of the effective communication. In his theories, Mead has propounded three basic stages for Symbolic Interactionism. These three stages form the elements of the social process which gives rise to the perception of self within the cultural and social boundaries one operates in. The first stage is the “preparatory stage” where the process of interaction is merely in the thinking and conception stage. Here, the stage is set for the parties to come face to face with each other after they have identified each other as potential parties for interaction. The second stage is known as the “play stage” where one learns to recognise the implications of the symbols that are used by each party in the interaction process. The third stage is the “game stage” where the parties multitask at various levels in order to put into use what they have learnt in the previous stage as regards the fulfilment of their intentions. (Dingwall, 2003) This entire process brings the perception of the self to the fore with a focus on the roles and functions to be carried out by each individual. Thus, the role of Symbolic Interactionism is evident in the evolution of contemporary sociology. References 1. Ward, Lester Frank (1902). Contemporary Sociology. Chicago: The American Journal of Sociology. 2. Hoult, Thomas Ford (1969). Dictionary of Modern Sociology. Totowa, New Jersey, United States: Littlefield, Adams & Co. 3. Parsons, T., & Shils, A., (eds) (1976) Toward a General Theory of Action. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 4. Turner, Jonathan (1985). Herbert Spencer: A Renewed Appreciation. Beverly Hills: Sage. 5. Merton, Robert (1957). Social Theory and Social Structure, Revised and enlarged. London: The Free Press of Glencoe. 6. Fromm, Erich and Michael Maccoby (1970). Social Character in a Mexican Village. New Jersey: Transaction Press. 7. McLaughlin, Neil (1996). Escape from Orthodoxy: A Sociology of Knowledge Analysis of the Rise and Fall of Erich Fromm. PhD dissertation, Sociology, The City University of New York. 8. Turkle, Sherry (1992). Psychoanalytic Politics: Freud’s French Revolution. New York: Guilford Press. 9. Wiggershaus, Rolf (1994). The Frankfurt School: Its History, Theories, and Political Significance. Cambridge: The MIT Press. 10. Schaefer R.T. Sociology. USA, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1989 11. Mills, T.M. The sociology of small groups. N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984 12. Avineri, Shlomo (1968). The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx. Cambridge University Press. 13. Screpanti, E; S. Zamagna (1993). An Outline of the History of Economic Thought.  14. Bell, Daniel. (1976). The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism London: Heinemann. 15. Gilligan, Carol. (1982). In a Different Voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 16. Dingwall, Robert (December, 2003) Notes Toward an Intellectual History of Symbolic Interactionism. 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