Effectiveness of the Effects of Homework - Essay Example

INТRОDUСТIОN ТО ЕDUСАТIОNАL АND SОСIАL RЕSЕАRСН Article 2: Cooper, H., Robinson, J.C., & Patall, E.A. (2006) Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Research, 1987 −2003. Review of Educational Research, Vol.76, No.1, pp. 1-62. Cooper, Robinson and Patall (2006), summarizes research carried out in the United States since 1987 about the effects of homework. The studies examined are categorized into four research designs. The importance of the summary and the use of different research designs therein are meant to help examine the most effective research design in examining the effects of homework. The aim of this comparative critique is to examine the effectiveness and efficiency of the four research designs in understanding the effects of homework, which is meant to generate inferences on how these research designs may be applied in my own dissertation study, which aims to analyze how misbehavior of students may affect the performance of teachers in the classroom. In their quest to establish the effects of homework, Cooper, Robinson and Patall (2006) categorized the studies into four research designs and they found out that regardless of the type of research design used to examine the effects of homework, there were design flaws. Nevertheless, within and across the four research design types, there was consistent evidence to establish a positive effect of homework on achievement. The studies used were grouped into basic research design types. The first research design type involved employing exogenous manipulations of homework for the purpose of the study by using random and non-random sampling procedures. Cooper, Robinson and Patall (2006) highlights the second research design type to entail studies, which took naturalistic, cross sectional measures of the duration of time spent by students on homework without researcher intervention, which were related to achievement-related measure. An attempt was made on the second research design type to statistically equate students on other factors confounded with homework that may impact on the relationship between homework and achievement. The third research design type entailed studies, which took naturalistic, cross sectional measures of the duration of time spent by students on homework without researcher intervention, which were related to achievement-related measure. But unlike the second research design type, no attempt was made on the second research design type to statistically equate students on other factors confounded with homework that may impact on the relationship between homework and achievement. The third research design type as noted by Cooper, Robinson and Patall (2006) entails calculation of bivariate correlation between measure of achievement and time spent on homework by students. In this research design type, no statistical equation of the factors that may be confounded with time spent on homework was done. The implications of the four types of research design in examining the effects of homework on achievement are that, all of them will require different metrics to calculate the size of the population sample (Cooper, Robinson and Patall, 2006). Despite the use of different metrics, the relationship of homework to achievement can be compared across the four different types of research design. The implications of this in my dissertation is that, I can apply different research design types such as employing exogenous manipulations of misbehavior of students for the purpose of the study and calculation of bivariate correlation between measure of teacher’s performance and student’s misbehavior in helping demystify the effects and the relationship of misbehavior of students to teacher’s performance in classroom. In addition, comparing the metric results of each research design type in determining sample size and in helping the researcher to make reliable, accurate and valid conclusions about how misbehavior of students affects teacher’s performance in class. The use of four different types of research designs to examine one phenomenon, which is the effect of homework by Cooper, Robinson and Patall (2006), closely aligns and relates to what Admiraal and Wubbels (2005) suggests. Admiraal and Wubbels (2005) emphasizes on use of different methods of analysis to generate accurate, pertinent and credible research results, which forms the basis of research carried out by Utrecht and Trondheim, which seeks to understand a phenomenon by looking at it using different lenses. The use of different approaches to examine links in a phenomenon is also evident in a study by Gorad (1999), who analyzes two methods of calculating achievement gaps. This informs my study on how misbehavior of students may affect the performance of teachers in the classroom, which shall employ mixed methodology approach by using qualitative research method and quantitative research method. The used of mixed research methodology in my study aligns with Gorard and Taylor’s convergence, which entails adopting replicability by using mixed methods (Gorard and Taylor, 2004). The used of mixed methodology where qualitative methods are integrated with quantitative methods are important in deciphering the complexities of a phenomenon. Nevertheless, the used of mixed methodology approach has been hotly contested, with varied sections citing epistemology distinctions and differences in methods and techniques of each. Nevertheless, mixed methodology can effectively and successfully be merged using four ways which includes triangulation, quantitative research methods as a facilitator of qualitative research methods, qualitative research methods facilitating quantitative research methods and fourthly, using complementarity, where both qualitative and quantitative research methods are applied so that the aspects of a study are merged as highlighted by Flemming (2007). In my study, the fourth option, which entails use of complementarity where both qualitative and quantitative research methods will be used to examine the effect of misbehavior of students and teacher’s performance in the classroom. Mixed methodology allows for integration of two research paradigms namely positivist and interpretivist, which are reflected in the nature of their realities as theorized by Stufflebeam, Madaus, Kellaghan (2000). As highlighted in Assignment 1, the interpretivist paradigm shall be adopted in my study to assess the meanings that teachers assign to phenomenon of dealing with misconduct. At this point, it seems appropriate to integrate positivist paradigm in my study in order to interpret the metric analysis of the relationship between student’s misconduct and teacher’s performance in the classroom. The use of qualitative research methods based on an interpretivist approach in my study is informed by the strengths these types of methods have. According to Flemming, (2007), qualitative research methods are important in social research such as which my study is based on because they help enhance the accuracy and relevance of quantitative research, they help establish suitable variables to be researched, they help explain unexpected research results and they are essential in generating hypotheses. This will be important in my study in helping identify and research the dependent variables of the study and helping examine the phenomenon in depth. References Admiraal, W. & Wubbels, T. (2005) Multiple voices, multiple realities, what truth? Student teachers’ learning to reflect in different paradigms. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, Vol.11, No.3, pp. 315-329. Cooper, H., Robinson, J.C., & Patall, E.A. (2006) Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Research, 1987 −2003. Review of Educational Research, Vol.76, No.1, pp. 1-62. Flemming, K. (2007) The Knowledge Base for Evidence-based Nursing: A Role for Mixed Methods Research? Advances in Nursing Science, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 41–51. Gorad, S. (1999) Examining the paradox of achievement gaps. Social Research Update, Issue 26. Gorard, S. & Taylor, C. (2004) Combining methods in educational and social research. London: Open University Press. Stufflebeam, D. L., Madaus, G. F., Kellaghan, T. (Ed.). (2000) Evaluation models: Viewpoints on educational and human services evaluation. Second Edition. Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Article 3: Gorad, S. (1999) Examining the paradox of achievement gaps. Social Research Update, Issue 26. Gorad, (1999) focuses on two methods of calculating achievement gaps. The author intends to examine the validity of each method given their radical differences and contradictory results they generate in practice. The purpose of this comparative critique is to examine the reliability, accuracy, credibility and validity of each method of calculating achievement gap, aiming to draw conclusions on how either of the method of calculation may be adopted in my own study that seeks to examine how misbehavior of students may affect the performance of teachers in the classroom. The two methods used in calculating achievement gaps as highlighted by Gorad, (1999) includes the use of percentage points as a form of basic currency and the second method is the calculation of change over time in ratio to the figures, which are changing. The importance of examining the two methods of calculating achievement gaps is that both methods generate different results from the same data, which have serious implications for policy makers and strategy planners in the education sector. This is because, the results of the calculation depending on the method that is used is the complete opposite of each other. The implications of this in my study on how the misbehavior of students affect teacher’s performance in class is that the use of either of the two methods, will generate different results from the same data, which will mean the conclusions made will be based on this and may as a result, be invalid or inaccurate based on the method of calculation used. Gorad’s analysis of the two methods that generates different results provide a good basis for establishing whether the use of different research methods and techniques in my study can significantly alter the research results despite the fact that they are from the same data. It is in the background of this that Admiraal and Wubbels (2005) compare two research approaches in studying reflective practice. The outcomes of the study by Admiraal and Wubbels are two different analyses and results. The use of different approaches and methodologies to examine a phenomenon is further applied in Utrecht and Trondheim studies who adopt two varying research paradigms to examine two teaching practice environments, comparing each using Guba’s rationalistic and naturalistic paradigms. According to Stufflebeam, Madaus & Kellaghan (2000), the level of the differences between these two paradigms is mirrored in the nature of their realities. This features prominently in my study that seeks to apply qualitative and quantitative research methodologies to assess the effects of student’s misbehavior on teacher’s performance in the classroom, where qualitative method and a case study design drawn from in-depth interviews and observation shall be applied to collect data. It is expected that the use of mixed methodology will not enhance inconsistences in the research findings but instead, it shall help enrich my research portrait. As highlighted by Gorad, achievement gaps are indexes of the differences in educational indicators among groups, which can also be applied in social sciences. They are used to assess differential attainment among subgroups and can be applied to analyze the differential access to essential public services such as quality health among subgroups. An achievement gap is multiplicative in nature, which means they are calculated as relative rates. Relative rates are obtained as odds ratios, which are similar to segregation ratios utilized by Gorard & Fitz (1998). The use of odds ratios approximates comparative mobility changes and is suitable while using loglinear analysis. According to the author, deciding which method to use is imperative. This is because at present, the particular method of calculation utilized to examine changes over time influences the type of results, conclusions and recommendations made. As highlighted by Gorad, use of multiplicative models and relative rates is more effective, accurate and valid in examining the rate of change over time compared to additive models that propose the use of percentage point difference method of calculation. Gorad suggests that use of percentage points does not account for the ratio of (a+b)/(c+d) and one cannot have real insight of the significance of resulting point difference. The implications of this in my study is that although I will use percentage point difference method to provide quick and rough estimates, I will have to rely on relative rates and odds ratios to establish the real effects of student’s misbehavior on teacher’s performance in the classroom as suggested by Gilbert (1981). Gorad’s paper indicates that there are varied alternative methods of calculating achievement gaps which can be used without necessarily eliciting the debate about the reliability and validity of percentage point difference method and the calculation of change over time in ratio to the figures, which are changing. Alternative methods of calculating achievement gaps include cross product or odds ratio, which is used to approximate social mobility. The other alternative method is segregation which is a method used to calculate social mobility and examining changes in stratification over duration of time. These alternative methods of calculating achievement gaps can be adopted in my study and can be used to calculate the actual effects of student’s misbehavior on the performance of teachers in the classroom and in so doing, helping the study to evade the indexes war. This will be crucial in ensuring that the results obtained are accepted by both sides of the debate on the methods of calculating achievement gaps, which entails percentage point difference and the method of calculating change over time in ratio to the figures, which are changing. This is because if the study adopts one method over the other, it will generate unnecessary controversy, which will draw the study away from the research objectives and aims. In conclusion, my study on the effects of misbehavior of students on the performance of teachers shall incorporate different methods of calculations. This is to ensure that regardless of the method of calculation used to analyze the variables of the research, the research results will remain the same and if not, the differences in results will not be so significant to affect conclusions and recommendations made. References Admiraal, W. & Wubbels, T. (2005) Multiple voices, multiple realities, what truth? Student teachers’ learning to reflect in different paradigms. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, Vol.11, No.3, pp. 315-329. Gilbert, N. (1981) Modelling society: an introduction to loglinear analysis for social researchers. London: George Allen and Unwin. Gorad, S. (1999) Examining the paradox of achievement gaps. Social Research Update, Issue 26. Gorard, S. and Fitz, J. (1998) The more things change... the missing impact of marketization. British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol.19, No.3, pp. 365-376. Stufflebeam, D. L., Madaus, G. F., Kellaghan, T. (Ed.). (2000) Evaluation models: Viewpoints on educational and human services evaluation. Second Edition. Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Article 4: Denscombe, M. (2006). Web-Based Questionnaires and the Mode Effect: An Evaluation Based on Completion Rates and Data Contents of Near-Identical Questionnaires Delivered in Different Modes. Social Science Computer Review, Vol. 24, No.1, pp. 246-254. Denscombe (2006) has focused on analyzing whether people provide varied information based on the mode of questionnaire delivery. According to the author, it is essential to assess if the mode of questionnaire delivery influences the type of information participants give and in so doing influencing the quality of data collected. The main goal of this comparative critique is to analyze the mode effect of using web based questionnaires compared to using paper based questionnaires, with the aim of establishing, which of the two modes of questionnaire delivery is the most suitable to use in my study, which seeks to analyze the effects of misbehavior of students on the performance of teachers in the classroom. Denscombe (2006) highlights that the increased use of web based questionnaires by researchers have been linked to numerous benefits of this mode of delivery namely their cost effectiveness, their ability to cover large geographical areas and population samples and the fact that they are fast to administer and to collect data from. Nevertheless, the author emphasizes the need to assess the quality of data generated using both paper based and web based questionnaires by analyzing the impact they have on the content of information given by participants. The findings of the study are important to my study because, the data in my study shall be collected using both modes of questionnaire delivery namely paper based and web based questionnaire delivery modes. From Denscombe, (2006), I will decide which is the most effective, reliable and accurate mode (s) of questionnaire delivery to use in collecting the required data for my study. Previous research such as McCabe (2004) and Lozar & Vehovar (2002) on the impact of mode of questionnaire delivery on the type of information participants give show that there is insignificant mode effect between the type of information collected using paper based and web based modes of questionnaire delivery. The implications of these findings in my study is that I can successfully obtain quality, accurate and reliable information from the selected population sample regardless of the mode of questionnaire delivery I use. Descombe is keen to follow ethical procedures to ensure that the research process meets the standards of an ethically accountable study. Other than ensuring a research design that permits near identical participants to respond to near identical questionnaires, Denscombe is keen to assure the participants in writing and verbatim that they were not obligated to complete the questionnaires, all information they could give would be treated with utmost confidence and the responses would remain anonymous. This aligns with discussions made by Nosek, Banjani & Greenwald, (2002) about carrying out ethical research. In addition, Denscombe made it known who was carrying out the research, what the purposes of the findings were and where the general findings from the research could be accessed at by the public. Such ethical considerations impact greatly on my study. This is because, I will have to seek approval from the relevant research boards, obtain signed consent forms from the participants and I will have to adhere to ethical considerations such as ensuring confidentiality of information generated by all the teachers and students involved, keeping the respondents anonymous and using the collected data for the research purposes it was intended for in line with suggestions made by Nosek, Banjani & Greenwald, (2002). Descombe analyzes two key elements in establishing the mode effect of paper based and web based, which are completion rates and substantive content of quantitative data collected. According to their findings, web based mode did better on the former and had no distinct difference in the latter. The implications of this in my study is that the completion rates and substantive content of quantitative data will greatly influence the results of my study and as such, web based mode of questionnaire delivery will be better in generating more quality information, which will help analyze how the misbehavior of students affects the teacher’s performance in the classroom. The element of using two different mode of questionnaire delivery to collect data as highlighted by Denscombe aligns with the use of mixed methodology approach adopted by Admiraal and Wubbels’ (2005) to compare two research approaches in studying reflective practice in two different modes of tele-guidance of school practicum. Although the study by Admiraal and Wubbels’ (2005) generated different analyses and results, the study illuminates the benefits of using different methodologies to examine a phenomenon in what Gorard and Taylor describes as convergence, where a researcher uses mixed methodologies. This is important to my study, which seeks to analyze how the misbehavior of students can affect the performance of teachers in the classroom. The study is expected to not only apply different research paradigms namely positivist and interpretivist paradigms as suggested by Gorard and Taylor, but also it hopes to use both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to collect data as supported by Flemming, (2007) and Gorard and Taylor (2004). In addition, the study will apply different methods of calculating the changes of effects of student’s misbehavior on students as suggested by Gorad (1999). Based on the study by Denscombe (2006), this research seeks to use both paper based and web based modes of questionnaire delivery. According to Gorard and Taylor (2004) as supported by Admiraal and Wubbels’ (2005) and Utrecht and Trondheim, using multiple methodologies and even integrating different research paradigms that have often been point of debate, allows the researcher to capitalize on the advantage and benefits of each and in so doing, enriching the research portrait and enhance understanding of reality since the researcher is given the opportunity to examine a phenomenon using different lenses. It is important to mention that the use of mixed methodologies and techniques in my study is not meant to evade the controversies that surround the different paradigms, methodology and techniques, instead, the researcher is much keen on ensuring the research objectives are effectively and efficiently attained and more importantly ensuring that the findings contribute to present studies about the subject topic under study. In addition, using mixed methodologies and elements ensures that the study is easily accepted by both sides of the debate and ensure that it is not the research process of the study that is being debated but rather, the implications of the research findings in terms of finding evidence based strategies of coping with student’s misbehavior and in so doing enhancing teacher’s performance in the classroom. References Admiraal, W. & Wubbels, T. (2005). Multiple voices, multiple realities, what truth? Student teachers’ learning to reflect in different paradigms. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, Vol.11, No.3, pp. 315-329. Denscombe, M. (2006). Web-Based Questionnaires and the Mode Effect: An Evaluation Based on Completion Rates and Data Contents of Near-Identical Questionnaires Delivered in Different Modes. Social Science Computer Review, Vol. 24, No.1, pp. 246-254. Flemming, K. (2007). The Knowledge Base for Evidence-based Nursing: A Role for Mixed Methods Research? Advances in Nursing Science, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 41–51. Gorad, S. (1999). Examining the paradox of achievement gaps. Social Research Update, Issue 26. Gorard, S. & Taylor, C. (2004). Combining methods in educational and social research. London: Open University Press. Lozar Manfreda, K., & Vehovar, V. (2002) Do mail and web surveys provide the same results? In A. Ferligov & A. Mrvar (Eds.), Development in social science methodology (pp. 149-169). Ljubljana, Slovenia: Metodoloskizvezki. McCabe, S. E. (2004) Comparison of web and mail surveys in collecting illicit drug use data: A randomized experiment. Journal of Drug Education, Vol. 34, No.1, pp. 61-73. Nosek, B. A., Banjani, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002) E-research: Ethics, security, design, and control in psychological research on the Internet. Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 58, No.1, pp. 161-176. Read More