The Islamic Resurgence: Causes and Manifestations - Essay Example

The Islamic Resurgence: Causes and Manifestations 1. Introduction This paper examines the phenomenon of Islamic resurgence in the modern world. The historical context in which this resurgence began is described, and thereafter the main causes of the resurgence are identified. The two main aspects of the resurgence are, firstly, its political implications, and secondly, the religious dimension, and these two areas are discussed and evaluated in terms of their importance for Muslims. Leading Muslim scholars and activists who have contributed to the resurgence are identified, and their particular influences are outlined. Thereafter, an overview of the way in which the resurgence has manifested within various Muslim countries is presented. The paper concludes with comments regarding the possible implications of the Islamic resurgence for the future. 2. Historical Context 2.1 The Cold War With the spread of Western civilization into Islamic lands in the nineteenth century, and continuing into the era of the Cold War, Muslims and nationalist governments had a common enemy—in the form of either the West or Russia. The Cold War started towards the end of World War II, when Russia and the United States (which had been military allies against Nazi Germany) differed on the issue of how to rebuild postwar societies (Gaddis, 1990; Byrd, 2003). Essentially it was a conflict between capitalism and communism, as represented by the US and Russia respectively (Byrd, 2003; LaFeber, 2002). It ended in the late 1980s or early 1990s. Before and during the Cold War, Russia imposed communist rule in many Muslim countries. At the end of the Cold War, Russia withdrew, which allowed Muslim leadership to strengthen in those countries (LaFeber, 2002). In addition, tensions between Muslims and the US were intensified in the absence of their previous common Soviet enemy. Many Muslims were convinced that the defeat of Russia was a triumph of the Islamic faith (Anusha.com). 2.2 Oil-rich Muslim Nations One of the main factors in the Islamic resurgence was the financial wealth generated by the Arab oil-producing countries. In the 1970s these countries united to form OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries) and the price of oil sold to the West was raised significantly. Saudi Arabia, in particular, generated a lot of money this way, and massive funding was given to Islamic interests. This financial support helped to strengthen the Islamic resurgence (Kepel, 2002). 3. Manifestations of the Islamic Resurgence 3.1 Political and Religious Aspects The Islamic revival has two main aspects that affect modern Muslims. The first relates to political activity and ideology, and the second relates to the religious tradition (Kepel, 2002). Politically, Islamic modernists have tried to strengthen modern Muslim states in their encounter with the West and modernity. For example, the Iranian Muslim reformist Afghani advocated that Muslims should undertake reform by using science, technology and good organizational practice (Hovsepian, 1995). Afghani’s dream was to abolish imperialist or colonial power in Muslim states. He wished to unite all Muslims under one Islamic state or Caliphate, which would be worldwide, and which would establish a reign of justice and prosperity according to Sharia (Hovsepian, 1995). Sharia is Islamic law based on the Holy Book or Qur’an. Afghani also had a theological goal, which was to purify Islam from un-Islamic practices. It was widely believed during the reform period that the failure of modern Muslim society had come about because Muslims had not been following Sharia and the Islamic tradition closely enough (Nasr, 2002). This was taken to mean that the community had abandoned God’s (Allah’s) laws, and the result was that Muslims were suffering. The revival thus includes a strong religious component, whereby Muslims are urged to observe Muslim practices more closely. These practices include fasting, prayer, dress and specific requirements for men and women. In this regard, the Islamic modernists see the non-Muslim Western world and non-observant or non-devout Muslims as equally corrupt influences (Hovsepian, 1995). They term such influences “jahilliyyah”, meaning ignorance, idolatry, or worldliness (Nasr, 2002). The concept of “jihad” is closely linked to the Islamic revival in the minds of most Westerners. But for many religious Muslims, jihad does not imply waging physical war on the perceived enemies of Islam—let alone the modern-day terrorism that has become associated with Islamist forces (Nasr, 2002). In fact, terrorist activity is frowned on by many religious Muslims. For them, jihad means struggling to overcome one’s lower self, which is regarded as the true enemy; thus jihad is a private religious practice. Physical war against the enemies of Islam (which are also seen as enemies of Allah) is allowed for in the Qur’an, but was traditionally seen as an inferior form of jihad. However, with the Islamic revival, this viewpoint is often reversed so that the emphasis is placed on the militant, external battle rather than the private religious one (Nasr, 2002; Heck, 2004). Another important concept in the political aspect of the Islamic resurgence is that of justice. For Muslims, justice is an indispensable prerequisite of peace. When the needs of peace and justice are in conflict, justice must prevail even at the expense of peace. Once justice is restored, peace should automatically follow (El-Affendi, 1993). Islamists (i.e. militant Muslims) see jihad as a struggle to restore justice according to Sharia. 3.2 Key Figures Taymiyyah (1263-1328) was the first Muslim leader who saw jihad as an act of holy war in defence of humanity and human rights, rather than a religious practice involving struggle against the lower self (Zawati, 2001). Following him was Al-Wahhab, who lived in the 18th Century in Saudi Arabia; most modern-day Islamists who have committed acts of terrorism in the United States, Egypt, Algeria, the West Bank and Gaza Strip, India, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Indonesia have been Wahhabis (Heck, 2004). Salafism is sometimes seen as related to Wahhabism, but often it is opposed to violent jihad (Hovsepian, 1995). Following Al-Wahhab came Afghani (1839-1897) of Iran, who has already been mentioned. His disciple Abduh, and in turn his disciple Rida (1865-1935) further developed modernist Islam, with pan-Islamic and Arab nationalist ideas (Siddiqui, 2000). The Muslim Brotherhood was founded in Egypt by Al-Banna (1906-1949), who also emphasised militant jihad (Ushama, 2005). Mawdudi (1903-1979) was another very militant Islamist (Siddiqui, 2000), and so was Qutb (1906-1966), who was influenced by Mawdudi (Abu-Rabi, 1996; Zimmerman, 2004). Qutb has been identified by Western scholars as the most influential Muslim radical intellectual ever, and Eastern scholars acknowledge him as a leading scholar and intellectual (Zimmerman, 2004). His writings deeply influenced Osama bin Laden’s thought (Lewis, 2003; Zimmerman, 2004). In addition to the Muslim Brotherhood, there were other organisations such as the Deobandis, which originated in India but later gave birth to the Taliban (Rashid, 2000). 4. Islamic Resurgence in Various Societies The Islamic revival or resurgence has taken many different forms in many different countries. These are too numerous to mention in this paper, but the following section discusses some of the more important events in certain Muslim countries or countries with large Muslim communities. This discussion is intended to give an indication of the range of Islamist and Islamic ideologies, events and issues, rather than to be a comprehensive analysis of what has happened worldwide. 4.1 Egypt Qutb lived in Egypt, and was eventually executed there by the Arab nationalist regime of Nasser. This elevated him to the status of a martyr in the eyes of many Muslims, and caused dissent between moderate and radical Muslims (Hovsepian, 1995; Ushama, 2004). Egyptian Islamist groups have at times adopted policies of violent jihad, but today both the Muslim Brotherhood and other previously militant groups have denounced violence. 4.2 Turkey Turkey has a respected and moderate Muslim political party which is recognised worldwide for its integrity. Some Westerners feel that this party a good example of the way in which Islam should evolve in the future. It is a democratic party that has espoused certain Western ideals and aspired to membership in the global economy rather than an exclusive Islamic caliphate (Fuller, 2003). 4.3 Afghanistan For a long time Russia was involved in a military capacity in Afghanistan, where it was enforcing communist rule. In 1988 to 1989, at the end of the Soviet-Afghan War, Russia withdrew its troops from Afghanistan (Goodson, 2001). This withdrawal meant that Afghanistan no longer regarded itself as sharing a common Soviet enemy with the US (Goodson, 2001), and this exacerbated its tensions with the US. The Taliban took control of Afghanistan in the late 1990s, and since then the country has become one of the poorest, and most devastated by civil war, in the world. The Taliban are very militant and were linked to the 9/11 attacks; they also oppress women and do not believe in political democracy. They were driven from power after 9/11 but are currently attacking the Afghanistan government and NATO (Rashid, 2000). 4.4 Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia has been a key player because of the wealth which it gained from oil sales and the funding which it has given to Islamic and Islamist interests (Kepel, 2002). In addition, Osama bin Laden was born in Saudi Arabia, and his ideology includes some degree of Saudi nationalism (Lewis, 2003). Bin Laden and the militant Islamist al-Qaeda organisation have been named as the prime suspects in the 9/11 attacks. 4.5 Lebanon Lebanon is important as the homeland of Hezbollah, which aims to eradicate all traces of Western colonialism. It also aims to destroy Israel. Hezbollah is a Shi’a organisation, unlike the Taliban, which is opposed to Shi’ism (Nasr, 2002). 4.6 Indonesia Somewhat as in Turkey, the Islamic presence in Indonesia has been moderate, with more emphasis on social upliftment, development of the economy, and education rather than militant jihad or the application of Sharia (Fuller, 2003). 5. Conclusion This paper has outlined some of the main reasons for the Islamic resurgence, namely a belief amongst Muslims that they were suppressed by colonial rule because of their own lack of devotion to Sharia (Islamic law). This led to a call for stricter observance of the faith, and a rejection of influences that were seen as being anti-Islam, whether these stemmed from Westernisation or communism, or even from within less observant Muslim quarters. The renewed interest in Islam has followed two broad avenues, namely the political and the religious, although these are not always separated from each other. In fact, some Islamic leaders, such as Mawdudi and Qutb, felt that there can be no separation between politics and religion, whilst others maintain that these two functions are best developed separately (Nasr, 2002; Fuller, 2003). The future of Islam and its militant counterpart Islamism remains to be seen. Members of the Western world are hoping that the more moderate approach, as demonstrated in Turkey and Indonesia, will win out over the more militant jihadi approach, which calls for the total annihilation of everything that is not based on Sharia or Islamic principles. The latter approach is frightening because of its intolerance for other religions and ways of life. But moderate Muslims believe that peace and non-violence are actually a part of the Islamic tradition. Unfortunately it is often the more militant factions that gain media attention in the West, and certainly this is the case whenever acts of terrorism are committed in the name of Islam. It seems obvious that the best response which the global community can make with regard to the Islamic resurgence is to strengthen the voices and influence of moderate Muslims. At the same time, the influence of Islamist forces should be limited in terms of recruiting young idealistic members, who are willing to see themselves as religious and political martyrs for the cause of establishing a worldwide Islamic society. Reference list Abu-Rabi, M. (1996) Intellectual Origins of Islamic Resurgence in the Modern Arab World. Albany: State University of New York Press Anusha website (Sam Sloane.com): Transcript of Osama bin Laden interview by Peter Arnett http://www.anusha.com/osamaint.htm Accessed 18 October 2007 Byrd, P. (2003) "Cold War" The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press. 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