Physical Education, Changing Domain and Its Challenges - Case Study Example

Physical education, changing domain and its challenges Current Research Trends and Issues Health and physical fitness are twin concerns in modern America as the rise of obesity cases necessitating reorientation of priorities and giving to impetus to greater research in physical education in a multidisciplinary way. Commonly called physical education or training or gym, this section of the educational system combines have undergone re-evaluation. In the USA, the the primary aim of physical education is to “equip students with the knowledge, skills, capacities, and values along with the enthusiasm to maintain a healthy lifestyle into adulthood, regardless of their physical abilities (Bishop) ("Gym Mats", 2003-2006) ("Physical Education"). According to the same document, the focus is to promote physical fitness, to develop motor skills, to instil knowledge and understanding of rules, concepts, and strategies, and to teach students to work as part of a team, or as individuals, in a wide variety of play like and competitive activities (Bishop) ("Gym Mats", 2003-2006) ("Physical Education"). Physical fitness and determining the correct exercises is no easy undertaking as because of several factors including the learning environment, physiological effects and what body parts and muscle groups are affected by physical movements, and the nature of play or setting e.g. individual or team, gender segregated or mix Physical education is required in most school systems which, highlights its importance more so now because of the increasing trend of obesity and overweight youths which has more than tripled in the last 25 years. Today more than 9 million young people are considered overweight, that’s 16 percent of the youths (“Overweight and Obesity”). One current trend in thinking in physical education is going to the direction of expanding the concerns and strategies of teaching to make a lasting impact, that is making fitness a lifetime concern of students. This is brought about by data from the National Center for Health Statistics which showed that currently, 30 percent of U.S. adults 20 years of age and older and over 60 million people are obese ("Adapted Physical Education National Standards", 2006). The implication is clear that despite the national health objectives to reduce prevalence of obesity among adults to less than 15 percent, the trend show that the problem is worsening ("Adapted Physical Education National Standards", 2006). Being overweight or obese increases the risk of many diseases and health conditions, including hypertension, dyslipidemia (for example, high total cholesterol or high levels of triglycerides), type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, stroke, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis, sleep apnea and respiratory problems, some cancers (endometrial, breast, and colon) ("Overweight and Obesity", 2006). Trends towards Kinesiology in physical education: The trends in physical education given the health concerns are reflected in current thrust in teaching and educational practices. California Commission on Teacher Credentialing and National Evaluation Systems using as basis their latest evaluation. is priming candidate teachers to apply knowledge - theoretical, scientific as well practical experiences to design, selection, and modification of physical education activities. Would be teachers are encouraged to linked the developmental attributes of students and their individual differences ("Adapted Physical Education National Standards", 2006). The trends in research is manifested in the education of teachers who are expected to be able to creatively apply the sub-disciplines of kinesiology. Kinesiology as its name implies is the study of motion or movement, hence as a disciplines it combines human anatomy (the body parts), physiology (functions), neuroscience (psycho-motor skills), biochemistry (nutrition and diet), biomechanics (body movements), physics (physical laws), exercise psychology (individual motivation, self-esteem) and sociology of sport (playing with team and cooperation/competition). Teachers now are expected to be able to fully engage their students in the values of physical activities and its scientific basis to ensure that students fully appreciate the basics of physical fitness as a lifelong concern and a positive way of socialization ("Center for Disease Control and Prevention", 2006). Trends toward student centered activities: One clear trend in physical and lifelong fitness education which is gaining grounds is to apply sociological, psychological, philosophical, historical, and cultural dimensions of physical education to select and develop appropriate activities and innovative approaches. Competitive or leisure team sports for example, has its own code of conduct and most popular sports today have its long history and heroes. But making popular spectator sports a participative sports is another matter. Here, social, communication research and motivational research is important to encourage students actively on their own volition participate in physical fitness activities regularly. We take note that there are a lot of sports activities, exercise routines and movement dynamics which may be used to popularize fitness which could be appropriate to a particular interest or predilection of a particular student. Impact on physical education programs and goals The trends in physical education concerns and consequent research and re-evaluation has effect on two aspects – effects on students; impact on teaching styles and methods which teachers must now possess to meet national educational goals and priorities and the consequent standards and measures of evaluating performance; and impact on policy makers. Teachers based from the current California Subject Examinations for Teachers for example stresses that teachers must exhibit the ability to assess principles and procedures, that is be able to collect the necessary information, analyze and interpret these mass of data and be able to present their findings for the consumption of their students, colleagues and appropriate agencies. This means that physical education teachers must be able to participate fully in the general effort (national, state, community and school settings) such as administering mandated physical fitness assessment programs ("Adapted Physical Education National Standards", 2006). One example of health of fitness program which educators must be aware of is the Nutrition and Physical Activity Program to Prevent Obesity and Other Chronic Diseases. This program is enacted so states can effectively prevent obesity and other chronic diseases. There are two related factors identified affecting obesity - poor nutrition and inadequate physical activity. The program encourages states to formulate their own scientifically sound nutrition program and strategies to popularize fitness and physical activities among the youth and the public at large. Among others, the program promotes good eating habits to include fresh fruits, vegetables low fat and sugar diet, promote breast feeding among nursing mothers and encourages the youth to take up sports and physical activities. As a whole, promotion of a healthy life style is the key strategy of this program ("Overweight and Obesity", 2006). In 2005-2006, 21 states are funded at $400,000 to $450,000 for capacity building. Seven states are funded at $750,000 to $1.3 million for basic implementation, bringing the total number of funded states to 28 ("Overweight and Obesity", 2006). The possible impact of the trends in research and its concerns on students is more complex considering the diversity in terms of background of students. Though best if physical education could be individualized, strain on resources could make individualized education untenable which means sports and physical education activities could be compartmentalized and interpreted thus as a “requirement” to get necessary credits not on its underlying motivation of instilling a lifelong healthy habit and practices. It should be noted that trends of obesity and as well modern activities of the youth are manifestation of the changes in the socio-economic conditions like urbanization for example which brings along with it fast foods, MTV, the Internet and spectator sports, which have acted on the traditional cultural practices such as family outings, baseball in the backyard, bicycling and other youthful activities popular just a generation ago ("Overweight and Obesity", 2006). As far as impact on policy makers or those who formulate health and physical education programs, the complexity of the modern societies experiencing the irony of affluence could question the old values and precepts in education which may need to be viewed along the context of community engagement to combat obesity trends and other chronic ailments which are lifestyle related. In other words, behavioural which could be influenced towards a more healthier and rewarding behaviour pattern such as regular physical fitness regiments appropriate to the individual ("Overweight and Obesity", 2006). Interrelationships of the sub-disciplines of Kinesiology Kinesiology have major sub-disciplines which include human anatomy, physiology, neuroscience, biochemistry, biomechanics, exercise psychology and sociology of sport. In effect, it takes into consideration the total person. Human anatomy or knowledge of the systems and parts of the body and their relationship for example once a person did a one hour brisk walk is critical in planning formal physical education courses. Relationship of air intake to use of body fluid or dehydration, impact of fatigue, which body muscle is being stressed in a particular exercise is the domain of physiology which is highly related to anatomy. Neuroscience as a sub-discipline of kinesiology emphases the internal mechanism of how the body control responds to stimulus and prompts both from the environment and internal command of the individual. Reflexes, decision, cognition and learning are domain of neuroscience which is very important in the education and understanding how people behaves and move. Movements associated with a person such as standing up, walking, sitting, running, jumping etc. the general concerns of biomechanics. This is critical in determining the potential as well as the limitation for human movement. Sports psychology and sociology have lately become important in health concerns such as obesity considering that factors that affects engagement in physical activities are social by nature. Self esteem and self perception, acquired bias and acquired habits such watching TV are all factors affecting participation in social events and activities such sports. Highly related fields to kinesiology are physical therapy for those with physical disabilities; occupational therapy or physical stress associated with particular profession like professional athletes; athletic coaching and physical education among others. Kinesiology is also related to graphonomics or the study of motor movement associated with handwriting and speech. Professional Responsibilities, Organizations, and Resources Physical education has broad concerns and integrated in the over-all federal and state program thrusts. Different agencies including the Department of Education, Department of Health and various agencies on concerned with nutrition, sports and athletics as well as private organizations and individuals are involved in the various facets of physical fitness and healthy living and lifestyles. Standards for Physical Education : The imperatives of the health and fitness concerns have resulted to enactment of standards for physical education. At the state level, in January 2005 Physical Education Content Standards were adopted by the California Department of Education. These standards represent the essential skills and knowledge that all students need to maintain a physically active and healthy lifestyle ("Adapted Physical Education National Standards", 2006). -Among others, students are expected to meet a standard of performance as regards to health and fitness stock knowledge. -Students must be able to demonstrate motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities. - Students must be able to demonstrate knowledge of movement concepts, principles, and strategies as they apply to learning and performance of physical activities. Students must be able to assess and maintain a level of physical fitness to improve health and performance. - Students must be able to demonstrate knowledge of physical fitness concepts, principles, and strategies to improve health and performance. -Students must be able to demonstrate and utilize knowledge of psychological and sociological concepts, principles, and strategies as applied to learning and performance of physical activity. Federal standards: Federal standard on health and fitness is also established which among others sets the performance level of health and physical education practitioners. -Human development, motor behaviour and prescribe exercises: considers disabilities and specific needs of students in goal setting; evaluate proposed activities and sets the standard on desired motor behavioural change as due course of physical education in consideration of diverse students backgrounds. -Standards on measures of success and evaluation include parameters to set the bench marks for change in motor related skills and stock knowledge . A special criterion is set for students with disabilities and special needs in consonance with the Individuals and Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). -Standards on curriculum theory and development set the criteria on knowledge on certain curriculum theory and development concepts, such as selecting goals based on relevant and appropriate assessment, must be understood. This also includes concern on proper designs for instruction before a program is adapted. This will ensure that other standards are met to effectively provide quality physical education to individuals with disabilities. -Standard on consultation and working in a team environment sets the guidelines on competencies and general requirement for staffing purposes. Also considers their development and ways and means to remain current in the field of health and physical education. Ethical standards and core values are also emphasized. -Communication standard includes setting the quality of information on how to effectively communicate with families and other professionals. A team approach to enhance service delivery to individuals with disabilities is encouraged ("Adapted Physical Education National Standards", 2006). Relationship between human Movement activities and values The role of physical education in promoting equity among diverse groups is that it should enhance the camaraderie among all the students and improve their wellbeing. This would prevent problems such as racism (Ewing, 2004) (Bishop). The social construct of race carries with it societal and psychological implications that can enhance or impinge on individuals' athletic and academic pursuit. For example, many social scientists have suggested that differences in diverse ethnic groups' sport and physical activity participation patterns are strongly correlated with socioeconomic status and disparities in health care services (Williams, 1999), perceived racial bias and discrimination within America's social and institutional structures (Phillip, 1998, 1999), and diffusion created through socialized stigma of inferiority often associated with ethnic minorities ( i.e., people of color) (Harrison, 1995. Harrison, Harrison, & Moore, 2002). American society has a rich and long history of racial injustices. Previously, America had a system of legalized segregation, whereby African Americans and other people of color were subjected to educational, social, political, and economical injustices (Jones, 1998. Massey & Denton, 1993). Williams (1999) asserted that racism is ``responsible for the development of an organized system of policies and practices designed to create racial inequality'' (p. 185). In that context, Jones (1998) identified two historic periods, the Old and New American dilemmas. The Old American Dilemma (i.e ., before the 1960's Civil Rights era) was ``typified by moral uneasiness over the struggle of right versus wrong'' (p. 641). This was an ``era of overt racial segregation and egregious denial of basic civil and human rights'' as ``failures of the heart were consciously reproduced in the institutional arrangements of society'' (p. 642). The New American Dilemma (i.e., late 1960s to present day) is ``characterized by moral conflict between right versus right-race-neutral and race-conscious social policies'' (p. 641). This era is typified by ``a context in which rights have been `secured' by legislation and judicial decision'' (p. 642). Yet, today there exists a moral ambiguity where relentless racial inequalities, despite the promises of the civil rights era, leave some doubtful of a real vow to racial equality (Jones, 1998). Interpretation and Application of sub-disciplines of Kinesiology The multi-dimensional approach of kinesiology is apparent even at the early years. Thus development of social roles and behaviour occurs in childhood years when physical play between parents and children and between siblings and playmates could shape emotional, intellectual, physical and social growth and development processes. Games such as chasing, wrestling or basic sports plays such as running, throwing, jumping, catching are some of the popular games played by children and adults alike. According to the Mass Youth Soccer Association these activities may be competitive or non-competitive. These are critical in moulding social and moral sensibilities of children. Fathers are more likely to be initiators of such games (Ewing, 2004). A study conducted by MacDonald in 1988 revealed that children who have experienced playing with their parents were more appreciative of the play time which is carried over to peer level situation. These children are more socially adjusted and able to function better than children inhibited from playing at childhood. Early interactions with adults, siblings and playmates are critical if children are to become emotionally stable by being able to get hold or control of their responses and behaviour in adverse situations. Children learn by interpreting cues from adults which could approving, reprimanding or outright dismissive, hence the social environment of a person even an early age is very dynamic. This early social skills gained through active game interaction are carried over to adolescent and into more regulated team sports activities such a basketball or soccer. Competitive team sports exposes the youth to rough plays and thus test the limits of how far one could go before it becomes “foul” or an unacceptable behaviour. Negative behaviour in a sports setting could have high cost such rejection by peers and admonitions from adults (Ewing, 2004). Other important sociological observations important sociological concern in kinesiology is self-esteem which is found out to be related to performance and confidence reflected in the learning curve of students. The main insight here, is that by the time a child enters school he/she has already learned social skills from which educators would hone further. Interpreting and applying kinesiology in relations to skill acquisition and performance therefore must consider motivational aspects as well as the cognitive dimensions in learning the principles and examples the sub-disciplines of kinesiology such as human anatomy or physiology or nutrition. Baseball for example is team sport which trains the participants in myriad of movements entailing eye, hand and body coordination. Playing at the bat for example, coordinates the eye with hand movement in response to the pitch. There is decision making on the part of the batter, whether to go for a homerun or bunt or maybe steal a base. The moment a hit is made. Team sports highlight the multi-dimensionality of a game including exercise and practice and positive attitude towards preparation and conditioning. There is a saying in sports that you don’t go into sports to stay fit, but you must stay fit to get into active sports. Thus fitness and sports could not be viewed as a shot deal but in gradation of fitness until a certain level of comfort is reached before going into higher energy and rigour routines. Fitness and physical education is a systematic acquisition of knowledge, skills and proper attitude to reach the optimum performance. Applying to teaching the number of related principles and disciplines to appreciate and understand human movements, more important perhaps and relevant to education how are these movements and behaviour carried on across generations (Smith, Smoll, & Curtis, 1979). In sports, the coach plays the intermediary in knowledge and skill acquisition in completing the cycle of generational succession. There are two general approaches to teaching one is the rigid drill training approach and the motivational approach or positive approach popularized by Barnett, Smoll and Smith (1992). According to their study, 95 percent of participants under coaches trained under the positive approach had significant increase in self-esteem and more significant, the same percentage (95 percent) of these youths, signed up for the succeeding baseball season as compared to 75 percent using other physical education approach. In the cultural plane different cultures have their own sports or equivalent events which also involves active physical engagement which could be as vigorous as any sports. (``Mass Youth Soccer Association'', 2004). Dance belongs to this category. Dancing is an art form with movements ranging from the subtle and sublime to rhythmic and acrobatic and categorized into creative or free style and formal forms such as classical, modern, jazz, tap, etc. Again as in sports, one has to be fit to dance. Involving in physical activities may not necessarily lead to a desired result, that is without proper guidance and study of the rudiments of kinesiology aside from the rudiments of the discipline. Dancing could be an individual, dual or group effort. Individually oriented physical activities such as gymnastics offers another dimension which brings into focus the mindset. It also put to light that concept of fitness could be relative, that is fitness is specific to a particular sports or activity. In gymnastics, flexibility is paramount to do the routines, in other sports strength could be premium or endurance or speed. Individual sports such as gymnastics illustrate that internal resolve less the encouragement of a team. There is no benefit of the team mentality, it more like non-competing or not really a matter of winning or losing but performing according to the standards of performance. Combining the insights, principles and lessons from different sports and physical activities and latest knowledge from kinesiology it is readily gleaned that physical education as much as possible should be tailor suited to the individual student’s level of physical conditioning, aptitude and preferences though instructions on theories and principles of kinesiology is a must for all before engaging in any programmed physical fitness activity (Ewing, 2004). Connections between physical education and other disciplines Physical education as a discipline because of its concern for total body development as a whole being is necessarily interconnected with other disciplines. It is related to the physical sciences such physics and chemistry which is the study of non-living of systems. Law and principles of motion studied in physics such as speed, momentum, gravity, impact and acceleration are helpful in designing athletic programs. E.g. the higher the center of gravity, the higher the jump, the lower the center of gravity, the more stable could explain the differences in performance of athletes. In practical terms, need for protective gears for knees and appropriate shoes could be explain fully if knowledge of impact (body weight times speed) of jumping for that lay-up in a basketball game. Knowledge of physiology and anatomy on the other hand is critical to avoid sprains, pulled muscle and illustrate how body movement affects the muscles and how body constitution and musculature enable one to perform such movements (Tillery, 2005). Mathematics is another field very much related with physical education and is plainly seen for example in computing for example the difference between calories in and calories burned. The equation should balance or there will be weight gain or loss. Biology and chemistry are fields of studies concerned with metabolism and bio-chemical reactions. This fields of science has opened up a window of greater understanding on what we are and our limitations. These disciplines are instrumental in explaining particularities of nature and general ecology or relationships between living things. Some of its concepts and principles like ecological balance are applicable to physical fitness and wellness (Tillery, 2005). As far as methods are concerned, the scientific method, that is being able to work systematically a particular problem or set of problems is applicable to physical education. Its system of evaluation and scientific testing will be of help in establishing parameters for example to know the effectiveness of a particular sports program. Psychology and sociology are two related disciplines which are interconnected in physical education. Simple questions like why people do what they do or why would students engage on their in physical fitness are fundamental questions which could not be totally answered without knowledge of basic psychology and sociology. Likewise matters such as self-esteem and self image are considered factors influencing behaviour. Economics is another related discipline to physical education. Economics some say is a study of scarcity, hence we work with limitations. Maximizing available resources for physical education program without compromising quality is a fundamental concern in physical education. Allocation and sourcing are two concerns which educators routinely encounters. The social sciences in general are concerned with either the subjective and objective aspects of society, its symbolisms, its functions, its structures, its code of conduct, norms or how people behave and relate with one another. Making physical fitness a lifelong activity necessitates wide social and cultural activities and assumption of responsibility by the community members. Health concerns such as obesity is a community problem which would require multi-sectoral participation and cooperation. Physical education might be specific to body fitness but its repercussions are social. Performing arts such dance and theatre are about movements and requires physical exercises to achieve the energy level for a performance. Its techniques and methods could be of help to physical educators, especially in adding the dimension of aesthetics or what is attractive to physical education to enhance its acceptability. Communication is another field very much seen in physical education, hand signals used by referees in a game of basketball to denote violations such as fouls, travelling etc. are domain of communication which uses signs. In the broader context, how to communicate the importance of physical fitness to students effectively is increasingly being recognized in the physical education. REFERENCES Adapted Physical Education National Standards. (2006, July 3, 2006). Retrieved July 14, 2006, from http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/physicalactivity/promoting_health/pdfs/ppar_a15.pdf Bishop, S. P.E. Articles. Retrieved July 14, 2006, from http://www.edarticle.com/k-12-subject-areas/physical-education/ Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006). Retrieved July 14, 2006, from http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/ Ewing, M. (2004). Mass Youth Soccer Association. Retrieved July 14, 2006, from http://www.mayouthsoccer.org/pages/347_promoting_social_moral_development_through_sport.cfm Gym Mats. (2003-2006). Retrieved July 14, 2006, from http://www.sportbee.com/gym_mats.html Overweight and Obesity. (2006). Retrieved July 14, 2006, from http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/consequences.htm . Physical Education. Retrieved July 14, 2006, from http://jghs.org/ACADEMICS/PhysicalEducation/NADIA/physicaleducation.html . Tillery, B. W. (2005). Physical Science. Retrieved July 14, 2006, from http://www.book-of-thoth.com/thebook/index.php/Physical_science Read More