Eriksons Model of Lifespan Development for an Old Man - Case Study Example

Counselling an Old Man Name: Institution: Erikson's model of lifespan development This section shows the Erikson’s model, the conflicts that occur in each stage, and the adaptive strength that develops from the resolution of the conflict. Erikson, who is one of the major contributors in the field of developmental psychology proposing one of the most comprehensive theories that explain the ways in which an individual develops his/her identity, that is, they develop a sense of who they are and the society’s influence on their development. Infancy (Autonomy versus Shame) The stage between birth and 18 months is a very important stage in a life of a person because it represents a stage in which a relationship between the infant and its mother or primary caregiver develops (Erikson, 1985). The trust that a child develops becomes the cornerstone of a healthy personality not only as a child but also when he/she becomes an adult. When Ronald was growing up, he did not spend enough time with his parents because his parents were successful business persons who were always committed to their businesses. As a result, they did not spend much of their time with Ronald. Ronald indicates that despite the love he had for her mother, he did not know her very well. This shows that Ronald did not have enough of this stage with his mother. Although he loved her mother, her mother did not commit much time as she was supposed to because she was committed to her businesses. This may be the factor that is contributing to his lack of trust toward the world. The only good memories of childhood that Ronald has are the one he enjoyed with his five nannies during his childhood. Early Childhood (Autonomy vs. shame, doubt) According to Erikson (1985), this represents the stage between 18 months and three years old. During this stage, the child increases his/her ability to coordinate actions such as holding or letting go and the ability to exert his/her will. This also represents the stage in which a child is trained how to use the toilet. This represents one of the most important stages in an individual’s life because encouraging a child during this stage enables him/her ability to survive and be dependent on others. Failure to encourage a child during this stage makes him/her develop feelings of lack of self-esteem, doubt, and shame. This period represents a period in which Ronald was under the care of nannies. Ronald does not have good memories of her mother as he is supposed to; rather, he has good memories of his two nannies. This may help explain the reason why Ronald is not able to maintain good relationships even with his wife because he did not develop the feelings of self-esteem during his childhood. Play Age (Initiative vs. guilt) This represents the stage between three and six years. It is a stage in which a child learns to explore situations on his/her own, asks questions because his/her skills to speak are more developed. The personality of the child develops based on imagination, the inclination to learn quickly, and to develop relationships with the other children. At this stage, infants develop a sense of security and initiative. Controlling and hindering a child to use his/her imagination makes a child develop a sense of guilt and may feel as if they are disturbing others. Ronald indicates that among five of his nannies, only two of his nannies were good to him. Ronald does not have fond feelings of his other three nannies. These nannies may be the ones who hindered Ronald from using his imagination thus developing a sense of guilt and the feelings that he is disturbing others, and this may help explain why Ronald’s social circle has never expanded beyond himself. School age (industry vs. inferiority) This represents the stage between the age of 6 and 12 years, and it involves learning through observation (Erikson, 1985). In school, a child can plan, work, and share tasks with the other children. This represents a stage where a child spends most of his/her time in school and little time at home. Teachers and adults reinforce the personality of a child at this stage. These adults promote a child’s confidence making him/her feel industrious. Failure to receive this reinforcement makes an individual to develop the feelings of inferiority and self-doubt. In the latter case, a child is in danger of developing a sense of inadequacy. They develop feelings that their social worth is determined by their parental status, their skin colour, the cost of their clothes instead of being developed by their will to learn. In such children, a permanent damage occurs where their sense of identity is damaged (Hurst, 2016). During this developmental period, Ronald was enrolled in a boarding school. Therefore, it is clear that Ronald transitioned from being under the care of nannies to the care of teachers. Ronald lacked one of the most important types of care during his early childhood – the care of parents. Therefore, this may have affected him during the school age stage thus reinforcing the feelings of inferiority. Adolescence (Identity vs. Role Confusion) This stage represents the stage where an individual is in the middle and high school range. According to Coon & Mitterer (2004), the adolescent is often a time full of confusion. As Ronald matured physically and mentally, he developed a new body, feelings, and attitudes. He needed to build an identity based on his values, talents, relationships, and life history. It is clear from Ronald’s story that he did not develop a good sense of identity thus suffering from role confusion. According to Erikson, adolescence represents a time of great crisis because the adolescents are always seeking to establish their personal identity. They often live in a state of suspended morality because this is the time they are trying to formulate personal ideologies on the values that are different from those of their parents. For Ronald, this may have been a very confusing period because he has already confessed that he did not know his parents well. The psychosocial side of adolescence stage is identity and role confusion (Berzoff, Flanagan, and Hertz, 2011). Erikson emphasised that adolescent’s behaviour must be understood by historical and sociocultural contexts in which an individual develops. Young Adulthood, Middle Adulthood, and Late Adulthood Ronald is already in his late adulthood. This represents a time of his life when he is looking back on his life and evaluating the effects his life has had on the world. For Ronald, this represents a stressing time because most of his life has not been successful. He has not been able to solve problems that have occurred in his young adulthood and middle adulthood. As a result, he is not able to handle his remaining life from a healthy point of view. Donald appears to be regretting his life. It is evident that Ronald was able to enter into an intimate relationship in his young adulthood. He entered his middle adulthood where together with his wife had a daughter. However, this marriage did not work out as he would have expected. Therefore, he views his life as a disappointment and a failure. This is a stage in which an individual feels a need for intimacy in his/her life. Ronald’s Possible Attachment Style (Bowlby’s Attachment Theory) Bowlby (1969) postulated that an infant needs to form at least one relationship with one of his/her primary caregivers for him/her to develop socially and emotionally. In most of the cases, this primary caregiver is the mother. Therefore, an infant’s mother plays a very important role in emotional and social development in a child. Children who lack enough or appropriate primary care experience problems later in life. A child is always seeking attachment to his/her, primary caregiver. In the present case, Ronald did have a closer attachment to his mother; rather, he had a stronger attachment to his nannies. This may explain why Ronald is unable to maintain his relationship with people who are within the inner circles, his wife included and their daughter. Instead, Ronald is seeking to establish stronger relationships with the outsiders. Ronald enjoys interacting with strangers in the library; however, in his marriage life, he leads a life separate from that of his wife. Infant form attachments with adults they feel are sensitive and responsive to them. They also form attachments with people who consistently interact with (6 months to 2 years). According to Bretherton & Munholland (1999), through these attachments, children develop internal working models which guide their expectations, thoughts, and feelings in later relationships. There is a factor of lack of parental attachment in Ronald’s marriage relationship. Ronald’s failure to develop an internal working model may be attributed to the problems that Ronald is having with his wife and daughter. Ronald developed another separate kind of care different from the one he could have developed had he developed a closer attachment to his parents. He developed a kind of care that developed out of his relationship with his nannies. There are influences and factors present in earlier stages of development that affect an individual during adulthood. Attachment and relationships are very important factors in an individual’s life. John Bowlby (1969) was one of the greatest contributors to the study of human relationships and attachments. Children need to have good experienced in their early developmental stages. Also, they need to have positive relationships. Failure to have good experiences and positive relationships will affect children’s attachments and relationships in their adulthood. Ronald has been experiencing troublesome relationship not only with his wife but also with other people in the society. According to Bowlby (1969), the attachment is a very important factor throughout the life of a person. Bowlby’s (1969) Attachment Theory is used to analyse the way that adults enter into relationships and sustain them. Ronald manages to enter into relationships, but it seems that he cannot sustain them. Bowlby’s theory is different from the social-learning, and psychoanalytic theories in that Bowlby postulated that children are born with the tendency to develop attachment relationships with individuals taking care of them (Benson & Haith, 2014). Failure for a mother to adequately meet the needs of the child does not mean that attachment will not develop and be directed toward attachment figures. Based on Ronald’s story, the most important attachment figures in his life are his two nannies whom he wished he had all the time he was at home. The Strange situation occurs whenever there is a series of separation and reunions between the child and his/her caregiver, and the interaction between the child and strangers. Ronald developed some strange relationships during his early childhood. Ronald reunited with his mother after many brief separations. As a result, he did not have time to develop deep attachments to his mother, and this explains why Ronald indicates that he does not know his mother well. Ainsworth, a student of Bowlby, conducted studies examining how secure attachments are. She postulated that different attachments developed but wondered whether these attachments differ between cultures. In same case attachments occur in all cultures, it would mean that these attachments are instinctive and innate. In case these attachments are different, it would suggest that these attachments are learned and influenced by environment. The concepts of attachment theory are accepted and have shaped the foundation of new therapies and informed current therapies. According to Berlin, Zeanah & Lieberman (2008), the attachment is the tie or affection bond that develops between a person and his/her attachment figure (the caregiver). Between two adults, this bond is usually reciprocal in nature. However, between a child and an adult, this bond is grounded on a child’s need for protection, care, security, and safety. These factors are the most important needs of a child and are vital in childhood. According to Bowlby theory of attachment, children attach to carers based on their instincts (Bretherton & Munholland, 1999) for the purpose of their survival (Prior & Glaser, 2006). In biological approach, the aim of a child in seeking this attachment is purely for the purpose of survival and security purpose. Ronald missed this opportunity – an opportunity to have that attachment something that might have made him develop the feelings of insecurity that he displays today. Ronald formed his attachment with two nannies whom he felt were responsive and sensitive in social interactions with him. These nannies gave Ronald ‘quality’ that he needed from a social engagement. This ‘quality’ is viewed to be more influential compared to the time spent with the child. Ronald’s mother may have been with him for a long time; however, she did not find time to give him ‘quality.’ According to Bowlby (1969) the usual primary attachment figure to a child is his/her biological mother; however, he asserts that this role can be taken by another person as long as she behaves in a motherly way for the duration of time. It is further emphasised that the primary giver who wishes to develop an attachment with the child must respond readily to child’s signals and approaches (Bowlby, 1969). In literature, fathers are not usually mentioned as persons who can take this theory; however, in the attachment theory, it is not suggested that a father is not equally likely to assume the role of the principal attachment figure. The theory suggests that if the father is providing most of the social interaction and child care, he can also assume the role of the principal attachment figure (Holmes, 1993). There are some cases of children who direct their attachment behaviour towards two or more attachment figures as soon as they learn to learn to discriminate between different caregivers. According to Ronald’s story, it is clear that Ronald had two nannies whom he liked and other three nannies that he disliked. It is an unfortunate situation that in his hierarchical arrangement, Ronald places the two nannies at the top disregarding even the role of his mother. A child usually sets his/her goal of the attachment which is to maintain the bond with the available attachment figure and the one he/she can easily access (Kobak & Madsen, 2008). Ronald had already set his goal of the attachment; “he wished he had the same nannies all the time he was at home.” Ronald may not have experienced any stress during his childhood due to the lack of attachment between him and his parents because he had nannies who showered him with love and care. However, Ronald may have experienced stress due to the breakdown of communication between him and his parents, emotional unavailability or signs of abandonment or rejection. Bandura’s Self-efficacy Theory The general essence of this theory is that individuals will only attempt tasks they think they can adequately do and will not attempt anything they think they cannot do. However, the theory also postulates that individuals who have a strong sense of efficacy usually accomplish complicated tasks because they believe they can do so. They view these tasks as challenges which they can easily master, rather than viewing them as challenges that they should avoid (Bandura, 1994). On the other hand, individuals who have a weak sense of efficacy usually doubt their ability to accomplish complicated tasks because they view them as threats that should be avoided. They have a personal weakness which drives them to avoid these tasks, and this prevents them from being successful in life. Self-efficacy is not a trait; rather, it is a perception of capability that an individual develops through either observing other individuals or through personal experiences. Self-efficacy theory is tied to change providing a clear path that is easily predictable and tying attitude and thoughts with actions (Turner, 2014). This theory can be used in helping Ronald to approach the remaining part of his life in a positive way. Not only does this theory help clients to learn from their experiences, but it also helps them learn from their experiences. According to Saleeby (2002), self-efficacy is compatible with a strengths approach. This theory also allows the client to recognise problems and barriers preventing him/her from attaining happiness and goals in his/her life. Based on Ronald’s story, Ronald is a person who has a strong sense of self-efficacy and through this strength; he has managed to achieve some successes and responsible behaviour in his life. Although Ronald has not been able to maintain his family successfully together, including leading separate life from his wife, Ronald remained loyal to his daughter, taking care of her in every way he could. Ronald had also worked hard in school and had become a public accountant, a job which he undertook until he retired. He had attained a degree from a well-known university. Regarding his education attainment, it seems that Ronald was an efficacious person who set challenging objectives and maintained a firm commitment to them. However, in other aspects of his life, especially his family, Ronald has not been able to overcome the challenges in his life. It seems that Ronald has not been able to overcome the challenges of his early childhood. He has not been able to increase his efforts to keep his family together. He has not been able to approach the issue of his daughter with confidence, and this is plunging him into stress and depression. Regarding his health, he is also not able to approach the issue with confidence; he is not undertaking actions that can help him with his obese situation. According to Bandura (1994), having a good outlook on one’s problems can help reduce stress and lower the risk of stress and depression. Ronald requires changing his outlook on the challenges that he has to lead a good life. On the negative side, Ronald is a person who doubts his ability to overcome challenges in his life. He sees his marital problems, his obese status, and the problems with her daughter as threats to his life. As a result, Ronald avoids these problems bases on his personal weaknesses. He gave up so quickly on his marriage and lost faith in it. This outlook has contributed to the increasing stress being witnessed in his life. Problems Facing Ronald One of the problems facing Ronald is that he is suffering from obesity. What amplifies this problem is that Ronald does not engage in activities that can help him reduce his weight neither does he have a program for eating a diet that can contribute in helping him reduce his weight. Second, although Ronald lives in a lovely environment, his house is not well arranged being a reflection of a man who does not enjoy his life. According to the case story, everything in the house seems empty and brown. Ronald does not have an active social life; there are no signs or indications that Ronald has friends. Generally, he leads a gloomy life. He seemed to be suffering psychologically. Ronald seemed to be drawn to forming relationships and attachment with people who are outside his family circle. He does not have a very good experience of a family. Helping Ronald There are many different ways in which Ronald may be helped. First, Bandura (1994) discussed the aspect of mastery experience. He asserted that every individual has mastery experiences indicating that these occur when an individual attempts to do something and is successful; that is, he/she has mastered something. This represents one of the best and effective ways of boosting one’s self-efficacy because people are encouraged to believe that they can do something new if it is similar to something they have already accomplished. Ronald has accomplished many good things in his life, including succeeding in his education and professional career. It may be good to approach Ronald’s case by recognising such strong points in his life. Ronald can be helped to recognise that his educational and career achievements are significant mastery experiences. These may act as some of the strongest predictors of Ronald’s belief in his ability to overcome the other challenges in his life. Another strong predictor of Ronald’s ability to handle his marital problems is that he has managed to take care of her daughter’s problematic life. Directing Ronald to recognise that he is a strong-willed person can pay off in many ways. Regarding his obese situation, Ronald’s mastery experiences may be used to help him reduce his weight. There is no alternative mode of treating the obesity cases except changing one’s lifestyle, including changing one’s diet and engaging in exercises. Ronald should be taught about exercises. Teaching Ronald concerning these exercises before engaging in them will help increase his self-efficacy, and he is more likely to realize success in reduction of his weight more quickly. A training program for Ronald can be one of the best ways of addressing Ronald’s obesity problem. Mastery experiences are important because they give individuals the skills and belief in themselves thus helping them adopt healthier behaviours. For Ronald, treatment should be conducted in his home setting rather than being dome in a therapist’s office. Mastery experiences represent one of the most effective ways of supporting client exercise self-efficacy. Ronald should be helped to start with a simple exercise program and gradually lead him to more challenging exercise. However, these exercises should be fit for an elderly person. Nevertheless, some challenging tasks and exercises are necessary in the case of Ronald. According to Bandura (1994), for an individual to develop a strong sense of efficacy, he has to be taken through some challenging tasks. The only active activity that Ronald has been having is the volunteering work at the library. At home, all that Ronald does is reading and watching television. This shows that Ronald has not been leading a physically active life, and this may have contributed to his obese status. Another approach of helping Ronald is through vicarious experience. This represents a situation in which an individual observes the success and failures of others. Others people who have attempted a similar task and accomplished act as a model through which the target client can learn. According to Bandura (1994), observing another person accomplish a task successfully increases the observer’s self-efficacy. There are many people who are Ronald’s age who have been engaging in exercises and had achieved successes in their resolutions to reduce weight. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to integrate Ronald in a group of obese people who have set targets of reducing weight. People working together in a group and the ones who have a similar goal easily accomplish their goal. Obese people draw inspiration to continue in a weight loss program from a person who has achieved weight loss through exercises and eating sensible diets. The belief of such a person to accomplish similar weight loss is strengthened. By watching people who have the same weight choose healthy foods will increase Ronald’s belief to do the same. Ronald should be enrolled in training sessions not only to increase his mastery but also to provide him with vicarious experiences. Other problems affecting Ronald include worry, stress, anxiety, and fear. According to Pajares (2002), these problems make an individual unable to perform feared tasks. Bandura & Adams (1977) also observe that such stressful situations arouse one’s emotions thus affecting his/her perceived self-efficacy to cope with challenging situations. Ronald is going through very stressful situations, including stress due to a failed marriage, failure of his daughter to give him a granddaughter among many other things as it has been demonstrated earlier in this paper. These situations have significantly affected Ronald making him seek help. The treatment that Ronald requires is to be helped through providing him with encouragement and positive evaluations (Feltz & Lirgg, 1993). Another way of helping Ronald is through prompting attributions about their loss (McAuley & Gross, 1983). These approaches will help Ronald to think through prompting such that his self-efficacy will be enhanced. By thinking about the successes he has had in life, including attaining a degree in accounting will help enhance his self-efficacy. References Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press Bandura, A. & Adams, H. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215. Benson, J. & Haith, M. (2014). Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood. Academic Press. Berlin, L., Zeanah, C. & Lieberman, A. (2008). “Prevention and Intervention Programs for Supporting Early Attachment Security.” In Cassidy J, Shaver PR. Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. New York and London: Guilford Press. Berzoff, J., Flanagan, M. & Hertz, P. (2011).Inside Out and Outside In Psychodynamic Clinical Theory and Psychopathology in Contemporary Multicultural Contexts. Lanham: Rowmann & Littlefield Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment. Attachment and Loss. Vol. I. London: Hogarth. Bretherton, I. & Munholland, K. (1999). “Internal Working Models in Attachment Relationships: A Construct Revisited.” In Cassidy J, Shaver PR. Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. New York: Guilford Press. Coon, D. & Mitterer, J. (2004). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior. South Western: Cengage Learning Erikson, E. H. (1985). The life cycle completed. New York: Norton. Feltz, D. & Lirgg, C. (2001). Self-efficacy beliefs of athletes, teams and coaches. In R.N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas and C. M. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sports psychology (pp. 340-361). New York: Wiley. Holmes, J. (1993). John Bowlby & Attachment Theory. Makers of modern psychotherapy. London: Routledge. Hurst, M. (2016). Erik Erikson's Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development: Conflicts & Growth. Retrieved from http://study.com/academy/lesson/erik-eriksons-eight-stages-of-psychosocial-development-conflicts-growth.html Kobak, R, & Madsen, S (2008). “Disruption in Attachment Bonds.” In Cassidy J, Shaver PR. Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. New York and London: Guilford Press. McAuley, E. & Gross, J. (1983). Perception of Causality in sport: an application of the causal dimension scale. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 72-76. Pajares, F. (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and self-efficacy. Retrieved from http://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Pajares/eff.html Prior, V. & Glaser, D. (2006). Understanding Attachment and Attachment Disorders: Theory, Evidence, and Practice. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, RCPRTU. London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Saleebey, D. (2002). The Strengths Perspective in Social Work Practice. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon Turner, F. (2014). Social Work Treatment: Interlocking Theoretical Approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Read More