Conflict and Co-operation - Case Study Example

Conflict and Co-operation Conflict can be broadly defined as the result of disagreement wherein the parties involved anticipate a challenge or threat to their aspirations, concerns and interests. Though this definition might look simple, there are several layers in which it needs to be understood. Talking of a conflict situation, normally, we know that there can be some degree of difference in the perception of two or more parties that are part of the conflict. However, the true disagreement as against the perceived disagreement may be largely different from one another. Truly speaking, conflict always tends to go with by considerable levels of misunderstanding that largely exaggerates the perceived disagreement to a great extent. Only when we get to cultivate the true perception of the conflict situation, we can attempt to solve the conflict and manage the real needs of the parties concerned. In this regard, understanding the essentials of conflict, the importance of developing conflict management skills and a systematic approach to conflict resolution are highly essential. This essay attempts to throw light on all these aspects. Often there are strange disparities in our understanding of who is a party in the conflict. There are occasions when people are totally surprised to discover that they are in fact a party to the conflict, while there are also other times when they might be shocked to find out that they are not included in the situation of disagreement. On several occasions, individuals who are not considered as part of the social system for instance groups like work team, family and company are forced to participate in a given dispute, irrespective of whether they may personally perceive the situation in that manner or not. Especially in the above example, people tend to "take sides" on the basis of their current perceptions of the issues in addition to past issues and relationships besides roles within a given organization or other factors. Therefore, the parties involved in a conflict can rather become a difficult concept to define in a larger sense. Conflicts are a part of social life since people generally tend to respond to the threat they are likely to perceive rather than the true threat that might face them. Therefore, while perception need not always become a reality as such, the evolving threat that they are likely to confront invariably brings about a modification in the behaviour, feelings and responses of individuals. It is said that there are always several procedural requirements and psychological requirements to be attended to within the conflict, besides the substantive needs that are normally put forth. On the other hand, the effectiveness of the individual interests and concerns of the parties involved in the conflict overtakes the immediate situation. Therefore, any efforts spared to resolve conflicts in an effective manner must take all these ideas into account. Though conflict can be said to be a normal part of social life, offering several opportunities for positive growth and development through enhanced understanding and proper insight, there is always a tendency to consider conflict as a negative phenomenon brought about by abnormally difficult situations. Disputants always tend to perceive restricted number of options and limited resources found in finding solutions, rather than the broad range of possibilities that may lie 'outside the box' which we use for problem-solving. Often conflict can be understood the best way by closely examining the impacts of various behaviours at some points of time. Such behaviours are usually grouped together on the basis of conflict styles. Each of the styles are ways to realise one’s aspirations in a given dispute situation, however, it can also impact the interests and expectations of other parties concerned with the conflict situation. By gaining awareness and understanding of each of the styles of conflict resolution and its impacts, we can at large generalise the consequences of our behaviours under various situations. If we attempt to employ a particular conflict resolving style that we deem the best out of our knowledge and experience, the gains are bound to be far reaching and potential becoming acceptable to all the parties concerned with the conflict situation. Therefore, it is essential that we gain a significant awareness of the various conflict resolving techniques. Looking from all these angles, this essay attempts to create a platform to understand conflicts in the right perspective. Over and above, the central idea of this essay is to highlight the various conflict management techniques and their relevance in various contexts. Definition of Conflict Peace and conflict research deem conflicts as the expression of opposite interests. Conflicts are said to be characteristic of modern societies in being endemic in the modern social constitution. According to M. Nicholson, “A conflict exists when two people wish to carry out acts which are mutually inconsistent. They may both want to do the same thing, such as eat the same apple, or they may want to do different things where the different things are mutually incompatible, such as when they both want to stay together but one wants to go to the cinema and the other to stay at home. A conflict is resolved when some mutually compatible set of actions is worked out. The definition of conflict can be extended from individuals to groups (such as states or nations), and more than two parties can be involved in the conflict. The principles remain the same. 1 Essentials of Conflict Conflict can rather be more than just a disagreement. Conflict is a situation where people generally perceive a threat to their interests, aspirations and concerns. Scholars say that conflicts are actually a meaningful and positive experience in people’s lives, while it should not be shrugged off by a passive and antagonistic attitude. In every conflict situation, the parties generally tend to respond based on their perception of the issue, rather than being guided by an objective review of the given situation. Generally individuals tend to colour their perceptions in terms of their own values, beliefs, knowledge, cultural moorings, gender, experience and many other variables. Responses to conflicts carry ideas and feelings that can often prove to be highly strong guides to our sense of probable solutions. As seen in case of any given problem, conflicts feature substantive, psychological and procedural dimensions to be solved. To effectively understand the threat seen by those that are party to a conflict situation, we need to take into account all of these above said dimensions. In every work environment, conflicts are obvious experiences. To a large extent, conflicts are predictable and can be expected since they are bound to arise when we tend to manage complex and stressful issues in which we have highly invested. If we can evolve procedures for identifying the conflicts that might arise, as well as the successful processes through which we can effectively manage conflicts, we can open up new realms in transforming conflict situation into a highly productive learning opportunity. Looking from above angles, creative problem-solving techniques are needed to develop a positive approach to conflict resolution. Conflict as an Issue Unlike earlier perceptions, the processes of conflict analysis and the prevention, management or resolution of conflicts do not target eliminating conflicts or removing opposing interests, rather their principal aim is to look into such types of conflict behaviour that enable non-violent management of opposite interests in an orderly, pre-organised method, the process and the outcome of which will be acceptable to all parties concerned. This can be brought about by a clearly understood and rationally deliberated self-interest or out of inclination to the theory of “shadow of the future” or the anticipation of a reprising response from the other side if their expectations are disproved. This is called as the rule of every deterrence policy. Understanding Conflict Often conflict is considered inevitable to constructive growth and progress and, for instance, good teams invariably go through a period of "form, storm, norm and perform". In this connection, getting the best out of diversity stand for contradictory values, perspectives and opinions.2 According to Carter McNamara, conflict helps to raise and deal with problems; it channelizes the job to address the most appropriate issues; it enables people "be real", bestowing a motivation in them to participate; encourages them to participate and it aids people learn how to identify and benefit out of their differences. Carter McNamara says conflict can not be considered the same as discomfort. While conflict itself could not be viewed as a problem, it can turn into a problem when managed inefficiently.3 Conflict can be said to be a problem factor when it affects productivity; drives down morale, gives rise to continued and more conflicts and results in inappropriate behaviours.4 Conflict Analysis Conflicts can be brought about by the incompatibility of individual preferences and by the efforts of every member in a set up to express certain behaviour modes in order to achieve his aim, and in cases where each party being part of a conflict situation perceives the other(s) as hampering the realisation of their aim. Every conflict has three basic components, which enable us to devise different interpretations of the genesis of a conflict situation besides different perceptions of handling, managing or resolving conflicts. Those three can be summed up as the conflict situation, conflict behaviour and the conflict attitude. Understanding conflict against competition Scholars state that competition generally gets out the best in people, as individuals struggle to stay on top in their area of interest, whether it is community issues, sport, politics or profession. Truly speaking, if the competition is fair and friendly, it can often give way to amazing sporting achievements, exemplary efforts in solving social problems or scientific inventions. On the other hand, when competition turns unfriendly or pungent, it can result in bringing out the worst in people. Some common causes of conflict There can be several causes or sources for conflicts in an organisation. Some of the most common factors are insufficient resources like finance, tools and amenities; varying attitudes, perceptions or values; differences with respect to needs, interests, priorities and goals; lack of proper communication; inefficient or wrong organisational structure, absence of team spirit and want of clarity in responsibilities and roles. Conflict between individuals Society is made of people who differ in their style of communication, aims and aspirations, religious or political ideologies and varied cultural moorings. The inherent diverse nature of the society necessarily presupposes the probability of these differences giving way to conflict among individuals. Therefore, it becomes highly essential to remain alert and step on to resolve conflict situations as and when they are observed. Conflict between different groups of people Man is called a social animal. The fabric of social life in humans greatly depends on groups formed for several ends connected to achieving many ends of the society. When people endeavour to form groups, they necessarily stress the aspects that can make their group stand at a competitive edge when compared to other groups. This phenomenon is widely noticed in groups formed in the arena of sports, religion, culture and professional workplaces. However, though the purpose points out to constructive results, often the process tends to turn into destructive conflict. Conflict among a group of people Conflict can arise even within the portals of an organisation or even within a team or group formed within an organisation. Such conflicts can be triggered on account of individual differences or ambitions listed earlier or could emerge out of rivalry between the sub-groups or sections within a set up. Therefore, it is essential that all leaders and individuals of every organisation must be alert to the characteristics of group dynamics that can at large spill over and take the form of a conflict. Need for Negotiations Filippo Aureli and Frans B. M. Waal point out that the life of human species on this earth heavily depends on cooperation for its survival as seen in the case of several other species like wolves, dolphins, monkeys and apes. An eminent group of about fifty-two scholars, which included a good number of the world's leading experts on human and animal behaviour, has reviewed several striking evidences from various disciplines on natural conflict resolution, justifying the case that the ideas of reconciliation and compromise are certainly as much a part of our human heritage as is waging war. Filippo Aureli and Frans B. M. Waal say, “Chimpanzees kiss and embrace after a fight. Children will appeal to fairness when fighting over a toy. Spotted hyenas, usually thought to be a particularly aggressive species, use reconciliation to restore damaged relationships. As these studies show, there are sound evolutionary reasons for these peacekeeping tendencies.5 Their scholarly works also address a range of cultural, cognitive, ecological, emotional, and moral perspectives of the process of conflict resolution in human society. In the second edition of their scholarly work entitled ‘The Handbook of Conflict Resolution’, they address the needs of both the seasoned professionals and students who look forward to enrich their understanding of the nature of processes forming part of conflicts and their awareness of how to resolve them efficiently. Their work offers the hypothetical undercurrents that shed light on the basic psychological and social processes observed in the understanding and managing of conflicts at various levels including interpersonal, organisational, intergroup and international. They claim that the arena of conflict resolution must take into account factors such as adequate information on the essentials of cooperation and competition, development of trust, justice, repair mechanisms, resolving tough conflict, and the skills of managing with conflict and culture. They stress on the importance of language, gender, emotion, and personal implicit theories and their relation to conflict.6 The Aim of Negotiation The ultimate aim of the process of negotiations or conflict resolution is to manage the trade offs forming part of sustainable development, in addition to achieving compromise during policy-making or allotting responsibilities and while planning objectives that govern a given set up. It is highly important at the comprehensive strategy level, however, more so in setting decentralised targets. Objectives and targets that are agreed upon have a better prospect of being put into practice than those that are rather imposed from above.7 At times when rights compete or conflict with each other, negotiations attempted in good faith become the only process that can effectively and legitimately compromise various interests of diverse nature. If there is no scope for good faith adjudication is seen among competing interests, the result can often be only a protracted conflict and escalation of conflict which will eventually lead to ‘win-lose’ outcomes. In this situation, the less privileged groups seen as part of an organisation are highly disadvantaged. When no firm and lasting ties any longer unite men, it is impossible to obtain the cooperation of any great number of them unless you can persuade every man whose help is required that he serves his private interests by voluntarily uniting his efforts to those of all the others. 8 Transformative approach to conflict resolution According to Heidi Burgess and Guy Burgess the transformative approach that they prescribe for mediation does not seek to resolve the immediate problem that lies central to the conflict, but on the other hand attempts to bring about empowerment and the mutual recognition of the parties involved in the conflict. According to Bush and Folger, empowerment in this context can be interpreted as enabling the parties involved in the conflict to first define their own issues and to look for solutions on their own effort and active participation. Recognition in this process stands for enabling the parties involved to look forward and develop adequate insight into the other person's point of view in order to understand how they put forth the problem and why do they intend seeking the solution that they propose. It is very important that the aspects of seeing and understanding should not be understood as passive agreement with those views. Quite often, the factors of empowerment and recognition give the way for the evolution of a mutually agreeable settlement; however, this could only be expected as a secondary effect. The principal goal of transformative mediation is to safeguard the empowerment and recognition of the parties involved, which would in turn enable approach their present problem, in addition to those problems that might arise later, with a stronger, but more open and constructive view. According to Bush and Folger, this process avoids the problem of the intrusion by a mediator which in typical in problem-solving mediation, placing the entire responsibility of all the outcomes squarely on the parties involved in the disputante.9 According to what Heidi Burgess and Guy Burgess say, the process of transformative mediation, for instance, can be viewed in contrast to problem solving mediation. While it is seen that problem resolving or settlement-oriented mediation concentrates on achieving a mutually agreeable settlement of a dispute seen in the immediate present, transformative mediation on the other hand as explained by Bush and Folger (1994), attempts to transform the perception of the disputing parties to a considerable extent by empowering them with an understanding of their own situation and requirements, in addition to encouraging them to identify the situation and requirements of their opponent(s). They say, “While such empowerment and recognition often lay the groundwork for a mutually- acceptable settlement, such an outcome is not the primary goal. Rather, the parties' empowerment and recognition are the main objectives of the transformative approach to mediation.” 10 Lederach makes use of the term "conflict transformation" in a much similar, however broader context. In the lines of Bush and Folger, Lederach also suggests that conflict professionals need to stop focusing on "resolution," since resolution often features the continuation of injustice een after the conflict is temporarily solved for the moment. He too rejects the idea of "conflict management" since he deems it to be too narrow when compared to the other possibly broader approach to the issue. He asserts that while conflict management endeavours to focus only on the technical and practical side of the process of peacemaking, it ultimately ignores the more vital issues of culture and relationships. Lederach employs the term "conflict transformation" to explain his approach to the process of peace-building. This approach primarily focuses on the dialectic nature of the conflict situation taken into consideration. It views conflict as being brought about by as well as bringing about significant changes in relationships. He says that in order to build peace, the more potential approach must take into account negative or destructive interaction patterns that need to be transformed into more positive or constructive interactions and relationships. This can happen through the factors including personal and systemic changes that enhance and enable the parties to pursue the values of truth, justice, and mercy along with peace. Falling in line with Bush and Folger, Lederach also focuses at large on the development of empowerment and mutual recognition, besides enhancing the ideas of interdependence, justice, reconciliation and forgiveness. Dialogue as a tool to resolve conflicts Several leading conflict professionals across the globe have been employing dialogue as a vital and established tool to transform value-based conflicts that are rather deep rooted. With the use of dialogue, minor groups of people who subscribe to opposing, highly controversial and broadly disputed views on highly destructive and emotional public policy issues including abortion or gay rights are rather brought together to actively participate in a "new kind of conversation." In fact, unlike debate, that attempts to score points and to persuade the parties involved to agree with notions that they might not fully subscribe to, the goal of dialogue on the other hand remains mutual understanding and respect, which is essentially same as the recognition according to Bush and Folger's terms. This process again does not give way to a resolution of the conflict taken into account, but it can bring about a significant transformation in the way the conflict is approached from one that is highly destructive and divisive to one that is constructive and which leads to personal growth. Over and above, dialogue has also been employed effectively to bring about positive changes in relationships in case of deep-rooted ethnic conflicts, like those seen in the case of Palestinians and the Israelis. Mediation and conflict resolution Mediation is a highly helpful tool in the process of conflict management that gives an occasion for the stakeholders to discuss the issues and repair injuries of the past, besides developing the tools essential to face disagreements more effectively. Mediators may at large be able to help the participants in the process with a glimpse at their blind spots, in addition to being able to significantly broaden their perspectives, and even work with the problem-solving process. However, successful mediators always make it a point to remember that the challenges are rather owned by the stakeholders. Therefore, they never attempt to short-circuit the process by endeavouring to solve the challenges for them.11 The role of mediators in conflict resolution The role played by mediators in conflict resolution is often considered highly important and crucial. The strategic, systematic and comprehensive methodology adopted by the mediators in conflict resolution is noteworthy. On the first hand, a mediator starts the process by getting to clearly understand the perspectives of each of the participants through a pre-caucus. Then a mediator increases and evaluates the interest of the participants in solving the challenge through the process of mediation because, if the participants are not convinced of the process, the process would rather be rendered futile or ineffective. In this connection, the task of the mediator lies in winning the trust of each of the participants. The next step in mediation involves setting the necessary ground rules for enhanced communication. To achieve this, the mediator must coach the participants through a joint session. The essential qualities that a mediator must posses is equalising power for instance between the individuals in different organizational levels. Ultimately, the most important role of a mediator is to help the participants to effectively plan for a future interaction. Conclusion Though conflict is an inevitable and normal occurrence in the framework of the society or an organisational set up, it becomes the unavoidable responsibility of the society or the administrators of an organisation to evolve a good insight into the nature of various conflict situations, the various causes of conflicts and the different approaches to resolve conflicts. When approached with systematic procedures, conflicts can easily be managed and resolved in a manner they take a new dimension to bring about the growth of the organisation and society at large. References 1. Michael Nicholson, Rationality and the Analysis of International Conflict, Cambridge University Press, 1992: pp. 11-41. 2. Carter McNamara, ‘Basics of Conflict Management’, Authenticity Consulting, LLC. 1997, p.48. 3. Ibid, p.49. 4. Ibid, p.52. 5. Filippo Aureli and Frans B. M. Waal, ‘ Natural Conflict Resolution’, University of California Press, 2000, p.3. 6. Morton Deutsch, Peter T. Coleman and Eric Colton Marcus, ‘The handbook of conflict resolution: theory and practice’, John Wiley and Sons, 2006, p.563. 7. Barry Dalal-Clayton and Stephen Bass, ‘Sustainable Development Strategies: A Resource Book. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’, Nations Development Programme, New York, 2002, p.276. 8. Amy J Cohen, ‘Negotiation, Meet New Governance: Interests, Skills, and Selves’, American Bar Foundation, 2008, p.67. 9. Heidi Burgess and Guy Burgess, ‘Transformative Approaches to Conflict’, Conflict Research Consortium, 1997, p.123. 10. Ibid, p.135. 11. Gregorio Billikopf, ‘Mediation and Conflict management’, University of California, 2008, p.134. Read More