Evolution and Role of Astronomy - Coursework Example

Astronomy Name: Roll No: Class: Teacher: Subject: February 17, 2008 University: Abstract Science is justified in relation with its practical attributes. Modern astronomy has no apparent utilitarian rationale, yet considerable resources are received by it to continue its work. Concepts from political sociology and science can be utilized to explain this evident puzzle. Astronomy explains and justifies itself to particular audiences, ensuring that agencies providing funding will view astronomy as significance of support. Astronomy is famous in public and this popularity is used to elevate and promote astronomy as educating people that support science in common. The professional composition of astronomy categorizes astronomers as an exclusive group with an impenetrable knowledge that comprises high quality of mathematics. Technical skills of astronomers can be used in different scenarios including mathematical and scientific knowledge and the primary basis of astronomy is humanistic instead of utilitarian. Introduction As per report of United States Government commission ‘the fundamental aim of astronomy is to create an awareness about universe and its galaxies, planets and stars formed, the manner in they evolved and what will be their destiny. (National Research Council 2001: 3). Working towards these objectives requires huge resources. As such modern astronomy is considered as an expensive science. Traditional assumptions about science emphasize its practical benefits and instrumental connections with development. Yet astronomy is science that has no evident utilitarian rationale. Evolution of Astronomy The oldest identified is aboriginal astronomy that most probably has its origin back at forty thousand years. Since then up to the middle of the 19th century, astronomy was considered as insignificant science as it was exercised by persons looking up at sky at night with naked eye. Up to the middle of19th century, research institutions of astronomy were considerably small scale institutions. From the year 1859, when spectroscopy was invented and the subsequent dawn of astronomy, a process of organization isomorphism took place. It means that new and innovative technologies altered production, successful organizations integrated factors of rationality into progressive complex structures. This institutional transformation occurred in astronomy. Complex observatories replaced solitary instrument observatories led by strong directors. Both observatories and directors were confronting each other. These observatories were similar in structures to other institutions; they were according to the practices and patterns in the society. American astronomy in particular became tremendously aggressive in relation with its entrepreneurial concept to funding. By the year 1940 astronomy was described and included in ‘big science’. The term ‘big science; refers to organization and structure of profession along with its capitalization, and in scrupulous big technology. In the present age, no professional astronomer could ever dream of using naked eye, neither considers performing astronomical research and not using expensive and sophisticated equipment that is the feature of modern astronomy. Role of Astronomers Astronomers are viewed as interest group as they share similar concern being the beneficiary of particular state resources. Astronomers are increasingly becoming organized as astronomy justify and explain itself with state and public. For example American Astronomical Society are assuming the role of political consultants to their constituents. However astronomers are usually represented implicitly during negotiations with agencies like NSF and state. In case a particular group of astronomers is successful this augments the interest of other groups in so far as these astronomers are in a position for using particular equipment built with resources. Astronomers as a spate and distinct group are considered politically weak and mostly their fortunes are much entwined with those of scientist in associated disciplines like physics. Heavy Expenses on NASA Projects Modern astronomy is among most expensive and costly scientific activities; requiring huge telescopes to observe inter-stellar phenomenon like quasars and pulsars, distant galaxies and black holes. The most expensive scientific project in the world history is Hubble Space Telescope which is expected to cross six billion dollar on completion of its 15 years mission. The cost of Hubble Telescope overruns were like that other NASA projects involving astronomers that were affected. Building of these telescopes comprises a substantial project that could be afforded by the governments only. As such astronomers are mostly dependent on the support provided by governments. Throughout the decade of 1980 astronomers relying of the funding provided by governments, experienced significant professional adversity due to cutbacks in government budget. Astronomy is specifically exposed to such cutback as it is unable to offer an instant return in terms of income or spectacular breakthrough. Even though a spectacular discovery in astronomy is made like claimed discovery of meteorite from Mars or organic molecules, a group of people may inquire about the reasons for spending money on astronomy in the presence of social problems existing at home. The dependence of astronomy on large-scale and costly equipment thus spilled into physics. Most of the astronomers today possess degrees in physics or engineering and not in astronomy. As per a report presented by Australian Academy highlights the relationship between physics and astronomy and suggests a combined policy strategy. (National Committee for Astronomy of the Australian Academy of Science, 2005) NASA and NSF Institutions also use transferable and generic techniques in making industrial, astronomical and defense equipment as already mentioned above while describing Hubble Space Telescope mirror. These relationships link astronomy with industry and commerce. The recent expansion in the boundaries of technology related to astronomy into space itself emphasizes even extra movement towards bigger science. As per OECD forum of megascience approximately fifty percent of expenditure on modern astronomy is presently connected with space astronomy, and admittance to space missions is a significant strategic factor in modern astronomy. (OECD. 1993) Professional astronomers are mostly working in large institutions and rely on Federal funds. In the United States of America there are two agencies that manage these funds. They are NSF (National Science Foundation) particularly for ground-based research. Other one is NASA responsible for space projects and space missions. NASA is comparatively a bigger organization than National Science Foundation and its charter concentrates on space science. NASA conducts research and launches mostly space missions. Different characteristics and cultures exist in NASA and NSF derived from a variety of mission. NSF is a science agency while NASA is basically a mission agency. (National Research Council. 2004) Astronomy and its Impact Astronomy’s role in not just to probe universe but it also attempts to challenge people in learning more about it as a science. Astronomy is among the most interesting sciences attracting attention of people as television and newspaper coverage and thousands of amateur societies of astronomers, groups and clubs demonstrate. Astronomy is helpful in searching universe and out place in it. Research in astronomy has significant implications for different branches of science. For example stars are used in astronomy as ‘remote laboratories’ that enables to study matter under circumstances that are not achievable on Earth. Astronomy can be used in three ways: Training of astronomy can help to prepare a person for employment. Knowledge of astronomy can be used in other practical fields. Tools specifically designed for astronomy can be used in other practical fields also. Velikovsky one of the most renowned astrologists questioned many philosophies of astronomy and physics, presenting a radical theory about Solar System, specifically about Planet Venus. Legends and Bible were used by Velikovsky for supporting the hypothesis presented by him that Jupiter planet produced a large comet that in fact became Venus just few thousand years ago. Jupiter ejected Venus and after that careened about Solar System and in the course passing Mars and Earth, influencing them in many ways, initiating catastrophes in ancient books, and ultimately settled into its current orbit. Research of Velikovsky was constructed around archaeological and historical evidence, instead of astronomical observations. Work of Velikovsky is cited as a typical example of ‘pseudoscience’. (Popper, K. 2003) Advancements made in astronomy supported by huge, latest and modern equipment have revealed new truths transforming many old and traditional views into new and modern concepts. For instance it was believed in the early history that Mars was similar to Earth. Just like Earth almost entire carbon dioxide was converted into carbonate rocks. However due to the lacking of plate tectonics of Earth, it is not possible for Mars to recycle such carbon dioxide again into atmosphere and as such is not able to sustain an important greenhouse effect. As such surface of Mars is much colder compared with Earth would be away from Sun. http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/reports/CB-1089/CB-1089.intro.html It has been observed by astronomers with the help of Hubble Space Telescope that condition in Viking missions may not have been normal. Atmosphere of Mars is presently observed as much dryer and colder than determined by the Viking landers. They performed experiments to conclude the evidence of life on Mars. However results were considered ambiguous as most of the astrologists are now of the view that there is no proof of life on Mars, although some controversy also exist in this point of view. Conclusion Astrology is considered as a science narrating relationship among terrestrial events and celestial phenomena. Modern astronomy is not only a discipline but a profession that reaches great lengths to create a distance from astrology. Although astronomy and astrology covers same spectrum; celestial phenomena but astrology is considered more unscientific and differentiate itself from astronomy for the purpose of avoiding confusion. Astronomy in fact demonstrates that over and above epistemic differences, boundary work can be the cause as well as result of unequal resources. It also emphasizes that there is need to view astrology as a profession and discipline. References National Research Council. Astronomy and Astrophysics in the New Millennium. Washington D.C: National Academic Press, 2001 National Committee for Astronomy of the Australian Academy of Science. Australian Astronomy: Beyond 2000. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. 2005 National Research Council. Astronomy and Astrophysics in the New Millennium. Washington D.C: National Academic Press. 2004 OECD. Astronomy, Report of the Megascience Forum of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Paris: OECD, 1993 Popper, K. the Logic of Scientific Discovery. London: Routledge. 2003 http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/reports/CB-1089/CB-1089.intro.html Read More

From the year 1859, when spectroscopy was invented and the subsequent dawn of astronomy, a process of organization isomorphism took place. It means that new and innovative technologies altered production, successful organizations integrated factors of rationality into progressive complex structures. This institutional transformation occurred in astronomy. Complex observatories replaced solitary instrument observatories led by strong directors. Both observatories and directors were confronting each other.

These observatories were similar in structures to other institutions; they were according to the practices and patterns in the society. American astronomy in particular became tremendously aggressive in relation with its entrepreneurial concept to funding. By the year 1940 astronomy was described and included in ‘big science’. The term ‘big science; refers to organization and structure of profession along with its capitalization, and in scrupulous big technology. In the present age, no professional astronomer could ever dream of using naked eye, neither considers performing astronomical research and not using expensive and sophisticated equipment that is the feature of modern astronomy.

Role of Astronomers Astronomers are viewed as interest group as they share similar concern being the beneficiary of particular state resources. Astronomers are increasingly becoming organized as astronomy justify and explain itself with state and public. For example American Astronomical Society are assuming the role of political consultants to their constituents. However astronomers are usually represented implicitly during negotiations with agencies like NSF and state. In case a particular group of astronomers is successful this augments the interest of other groups in so far as these astronomers are in a position for using particular equipment built with resources.

Astronomers as a spate and distinct group are considered politically weak and mostly their fortunes are much entwined with those of scientist in associated disciplines like physics. Heavy Expenses on NASA Projects Modern astronomy is among most expensive and costly scientific activities; requiring huge telescopes to observe inter-stellar phenomenon like quasars and pulsars, distant galaxies and black holes. The most expensive scientific project in the world history is Hubble Space Telescope which is expected to cross six billion dollar on completion of its 15 years mission.

The cost of Hubble Telescope overruns were like that other NASA projects involving astronomers that were affected. Building of these telescopes comprises a substantial project that could be afforded by the governments only. As such astronomers are mostly dependent on the support provided by governments. Throughout the decade of 1980 astronomers relying of the funding provided by governments, experienced significant professional adversity due to cutbacks in government budget. Astronomy is specifically exposed to such cutback as it is unable to offer an instant return in terms of income or spectacular breakthrough.

Even though a spectacular discovery in astronomy is made like claimed discovery of meteorite from Mars or organic molecules, a group of people may inquire about the reasons for spending money on astronomy in the presence of social problems existing at home. The dependence of astronomy on large-scale and costly equipment thus spilled into physics. Most of the astronomers today possess degrees in physics or engineering and not in astronomy. As per a report presented by Australian Academy highlights the relationship between physics and astronomy and suggests a combined policy strategy.

(National Committee for Astronomy of the Australian Academy of Science, 2005) NASA and NSF Institutions also use transferable and generic techniques in making industrial, astronomical and defense equipment as already mentioned above while describing Hubble Space Telescope mirror. These relationships link astronomy with industry and commerce.

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