Microbes and Anti-Microbial Drugs - Assignment Example

Running Head: Microbes and Anti-microbial drugs Microbes and Anti-microbial drugs Name Institution Date Introduction Microbes are living micro-organisms such as fungi, bacteria, parasites and viruses that thrive, reproduce and spread rapidly as they multiply. They adapt the changes of their environment which ensures their survival. Antimicrobial stops the microbes’ ability to spread and therefore there may be a genetic change that enables them to survive. The existence of some microbes in the intestine helps in fighting infectious diseases. (Shastri, 2006) Question 1 Antimicrobial drug is described as medicine that slows down the growth or kills microbes. For example tetracycline that is antibiotic used in treatment of infections of the urinary tract. Its medicines are used in treatment of infections that are caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and parasites. However, microbes may be resistant to antimicrobial and they are referred as antimicrobial resistance. The fact that micro-organisms are resistant; it endure attack from antimicrobials leading to uncontrolled pathogens that threaten human lives. The invention of antimicrobial was the most important health advancement for human beings. (Arch G Mainous III, 2009). Microbes have different structural characteristics. Its taxonomy is where microorganisms are grouped together according to their characteristics. Classification of microbes can be done in various ways. Numerical taxonomy differentiates microorganisms according to their typical bacteria and their phenotype characteristics. Phenotypes are referred to as microbe appearance or manifestation of the microbe’s genetic character. The phenotypic characteristics such as bacterium shape, reaction of Gram strain and bacterium size determined if the bacterium can or cannot propel along itself. The other characteristic may be determined where the microbe capability to grow with or without oxygen, bacterium chemistry surface, nutrients used and immune system reaction to the bacterium is established. On the other hand, microbe is characterized by physical and behavioral characters which are in four major categories such as; bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses. There are different factors that influence transmission of microbes. A model to illustrate convergence factors was developed in four dominions to illustrate microbe interaction that leads to human infectious diseases. The four factors are as follows, (a) biological and genetic factors, (b) ecological factor, (c) political and social factors and (d) environmental physical factor (Mark Smolinski S., 2003). These factors are both used to influence microbes in human beings. They are both considered as a fundamental factors influencing microbes transmission. Ecological change improves on pathogens to a new environment for transmission of infectious deceases. This is where; the microbes adapt to the new environment genetic variations and are in a position to multiply. Pathogen transmissions are mostly associated with rainy season that motivates its multiplication. Its transmissions are highly sensitive to temperature changes. However, confounding factors such as crop yields, drug resistance and the immigration of population with their adaptations, is considered as a factor that can reduce transmissions. An ecosystems change, has a great influence on microbial transmission. Microbes’ agents like airborne, waterborne, a vector–borne or food borne are their reservoir used for transmissions. Human bodies are greatly involved with cellular, physical and molecular mechanisms that act as protective barriers from microbial infection. Infection comes as a result of the damage of these defense mechanisms. Colonization is the primary microbial infection phase. This is the appropriate establishment of pathogens gateway. Host tissues that are indirect contact to the environment externally are said to be colonized by pathogens .There are human host sites that are used by pathogens to enter into humans body. These host sites include digestive tract, urogenital tract, the conjunctiva and respiratory surfaces. (Robert Krasner I., 2002) Pathogenecity is referred to as the ability to produce clinical infectious diseases in host organisms. Microbes pathogenisty is expressed by their virulence, which is referred to as microbes’ pathogenicity degree. Hence, the pathogen virulence determinants are of either biochemical or genetic and structural features that allow its creation of diseases in a host. Both pathogen and host relationships are dynamic, this is because, each of them modifies functions as well as activity of the other .The relationships outcomes depends on the pathogens degree of susceptibility or resistance to a host. They are mainly able to cause disease in two ways; one is by invading the tissues and two, is by producing toxic substances (Jonathan Ehrman, 2009). Antibiotic microbial resistance is of global concern to health facilities. The Australian government has invested in the healthy soil provision which is not for organization benefits but for a whole country as a whole. Healthy soils allow for purification of water microbes and health crop production, thus, it helps the country to reduce cases of microbes’ infectious diseases. However, the Australian government has set up a strategic plan for infections control. Health care setting such as aged care centers, acute care, child healthcare centers, hospitals, nursing homes and many others ensure enough offer of health services. The senior government management’s advocates and sponsor programes that are meant for microbes’ infection control. Standard health care facility precautions are taken at work place. Australian policy largely implement on personal hygiene and standard precautions, which is appropriate for protection against transmissions of pathogens. A proper disposal at the facility reduces multiplication of pathogens. Question 2 Streptococcus pneumoniae is anaerobic bacterium which inhabitant of the upper humans’ respiratory tract. The bacteria mainly causes infection of pneumonia, though, case like emphyema, pericarditis, septic arthritis bacterium and meningitis are also seen. The antimicrobial is used in the treatment of streptococcus pneumoniae acquired infections. Antimicrobial medications are classified into two lincosamides (clindamycin) and macrolides (erythromycin) which are actively strong against streptococci. Moreover, the antimicrobials are an alternative recommendation for patients who are intolerant to ß –lactams. (Felissa Lashley R, 2002) Pathogens have acquired therapeutic resistance. Its resistance to antimicrobial has lead to public health burden. Severe and frequent infections have emerged by antimicrobial therapy as it has little drug treatment available. These pathogens are met by streptococcus pneumoniae standard. Australian appearance of epidemiology of VRE (vancomycin-resistant entrococci) is considered unique all over the world. Methicillin resistance of streptococcus pneumoniae has a rapid and demonstration of significant change. The laboratories are not in apposition to provide a reliable testing method to detect all emerging resistant organisms. Organism’s multi-drug resistance in one way or another influence the tested agent numbers and reported. (Steeve Giguère, 2006) Drugs such as amoxicillin-clavulanate, penicillin cefriazone, cefaclor, erythromycin, cotrimoxazole and tetracycline are used in treatment of S.pneumoniae. The Australian state carried out laboratory S.pneumoniae strains 0f 100 consecutive testes. All samples results were resistant to various percentages. Penicillin resistance mechanism to S. pneumoniae is the targets, modification action of penicillin as well as its proteins binding. Recent extensive investigations for fluoroquinolones have been carried out in search of new agents prompted by the resistance that emerge in the microorganism S.Pneumoniae. Furthermore, molecular biology resistance study has helped in elucidating some if not all biochemical resistance mechanisms and mode of dissemination of information of genetic between bacteria. This is focused on quinolones mechanism action and its responsible resistance mechanisms of S.pnuemoniae, epidemiliological and clinical relevance is given to them. The awareness of prototype resistance helps in provision of appropriate antibiotic and when indicated, therapy may be a recommended strategy. Penicillin resistance, high occurrence and S.pneumoniae multidrug- resistant influence difficulties in the treatment of the respiratory acquired infections by the community. therefore, fluoroquinolones is used as an alternative treatment. Pharmacokinetic analysis of fluoroquinolones such as gemifloxacin, gatiflixacin, moxifloxacin and levofloxacin has recently shown bioavailability of a high rate thus allowing a dosage of once per day. There concentration in the respiratory tract fluids and tissues exceed the concentration of serum level. There have been clinical minimization and efficacy identification of the resistance. The new fluoroquinolones display has shown excellent results on pharmacokinetic properties against respiratory pathogens and therefore being an appropriate treatment for respiratory infections (George Zhanel, 2001). There are related adverse effects that are accompanied by S.pnuemoniae in many ways such as hypersensitivity reaction, glucose regulation, cardiac alteration conduction, phototoxicity, super infection and so on. Reports are made for suspected adverse reactions of drugs used. Vaccine Pneumococcal conjugate that was administered to children showed suspected agent cases. Vomiting and pyrexia were the major injections or rather side effects. Australia makes the report of the side effects using blue cards (prepaid reporting forms) which are available at the pharmaceutical centers. The other means of reporting is by electrical reporting. The clinicians are unable to fully answer the question as to why there is microlides resistance. Clinical observation, survey shows that macrolides the current resistance mechanisms are mainly caused by mutation. It however makes a gauge attempt of its significance on S.pnuemoniae macrolide resistance and further investigations are still in progress. CONCLUSIONS: It is clear that the world we live in is fully surrounded with microbes. The main role of microbes is to keep planets in turning cycle. Fungi, bacteria, archaea and algae are said to participate in the processes of biogeochemical which supports life. Antimicrobial resistance of Streptococci pnuemoniae is rapidly increasing in Australia. The Australian health facilities address microbes importance to health and its functions to coral reefs. It is therefore advisable to people to consider first their hygiene in order to reduce the rate of respiratory infections within the community and the country at large. Empiric treatment for respiratory and invasive infections needs to account for the changes that may occur as a result of mutation. So far, fluoroquinolones is considered as the best drug for respiratory tract infectious diseases. References Davison Alex , Stewart J. C , Jean P. G (2005) Oxford textbook of clinical nephrology, Volume 1.London : Oxford University Press . Mainous Arch III, C. P. (2009). Management of Antimicrobials in Infectious Diseases . London: Springer publishing company. Benjamin S.Weeks. (2007). MICROBES AND SOCIETY. New York: Jones and Bartlett Learning. Douglas Mayers L. (2009). Antimicrobial Drug Resistance: Clinical and Epidemiological Aspects.London: Springer. Felissa R. Lashley, J. D. (2002). Emerging infectious diseases: trends and issues. London: Springer Publishing Company. George Zhanel , Ayman M. N . (2001). Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the new fluoroquinolones: focus on respiratory infections. Canada: Manitoba University. Jonathan Ehrman. (2009). Clinical exercise physiology .London: Human Kinetics. Mark Smolinski, Margaret A. H& Joshua L. (2003) Microbial threats to health: emergence, detection, and response. Washington DC: Institute of The microbial challenge: human- microbe interactions. Shastri V. (2006). Microbes. London: Gyan Publishing House. Steeve Giguère, J. F. (2006). Antimicrobial therapy in veterinary medicine. London: Wiley- Blackwell,. Vissil St. Georgiev. (2009). National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH: Impact on Global Health. London: Springer. Read More