The Creative Thinking Scores for Rural and Urban Students - Assignment Example

Chapter 3 Literature Review Overview The overall focus of this Literature review is to examine the creative thinking scores for rural and urban students and determine whether these students can be categorized as reflective or impulsive. Using the TTCT as the bench mark for measurement, of rural and urban students in verbal and mathematical subjects. The framework for the Literature Review will put forth a number of definitions; What is creative Thinking? This study focused on the comparison between rural and urban students regarding creative thinking and cognitive style (reflective-impulsive). In this chapter the researcher will introduce a theoretical framework of the study by reviewing the literature closely related to three parts: the first part of the chapter presents the definition of creative thinking, the importance of creative thinking ; creative thinking theories, creative thinking and personality, student’s age and creative thinking. Creative thinking and intelligence, and the comparison between rural and urban students regarding creative thinking. The second part of the chapter presents the definition of cognitive style; the classification of cognitive style, cognitive style and environment, cognitive style and creative thinking. In the review of a number of studies, it is clear that there does exist a relationship between cognitive styles and creative thinking.There are a number of reasons which makes this a vital relationship. First, it contains the link between an understanding of intelligence and personality, which is crucial for creative thinking. Another reason is, it is possibly helpful to interpret the functioning of a persons creative thinking, as it relates to processing information and the basic underpinnings of cognitive styles. It must also be noted that cognitive styles play an important role in assisting individual versatility and prompting creativity through solid management of cognitive style differences. It will also include the definition of RI style, RI style and environment and RI style and the relationship between RI style and creative thinking. The third part of the chapter presents the Teacher’s role and creative thinking; teaching methods and creative thinking, Saudi teachers and creative thinking and teacher’ experience and creative thinking. The extent to which this literature contributes to this study is highlighted in this chapter, which are imbued in psychoanalytic humanistic thinking,which contributes many components that over the years have evolved into a better understanding of creativity. In the past centuries, creativity has been generally associated with those who painted, wrote music or inventors. We placed them on a pedestal and asserted that creative persons possessed either creative gifts or genius. Weisberg (1993) stated that "understanding creativity is a challenging task, not only because creative thinking occurs in diverse domains but also because a complex set of psychological and social forces contributes to it" (p. 3). 2.1 Creative Thinking . 2.1.1Definition of Creative Thinking Oxford's English Etymology, describes creativity as being derived from the Latin word creatus which means "to bring forth, produce, and cause to grow (Boon 1997). Creative thinking is "the ability to come up with new ideas that are surprising yet intelligible, and also valuable in some way (Boden 2003). There are a number of researchers who have been concerned with creative thinking, but the pioneers in this field are J.P. Guilford and E. Paul Torrance (Sternberg 2006). Torrence (1962) aptly defines creativity as the utilization of divergent thinking which has not in the past been applied to solve a problem. He made his assessment of creativity based on originality, fluency, elaboration and flexibility, which parallels his approach to Guilford’s. Creative thinking does not manifest itself from convergent thinking, instead it is derived from divergent thinking.(Sternberg 2006).Additionally Muneyoshi (2004) adds, Creative thinking is defined as a rational process made up of two cognitive phases: the generation of various options and the selection of original, effective ones. Sometimes the generation phase subsumes divergent characteristics(s) (Muneyoshi 2004 p.10). Onda (1994) emphasized that creative thinking consists of creative abilities that produce something original and valuable (p.99). Other definitions of the concept which are parallel to those theorist mentioned above is Davis (1999) proposed that creativity fully develops one's capability and increases one's flexibility, curiosity, open mindedness and sense of adventure. Creativity involves thinking, intuition, feeling and sensing. Carl Rogers (1968), describes the creative process as an emergency in action of a novel relation product, growing out of the uniqueness of the individual. Anderson characterizes creativity as an element of life itself. He states that, as an individual interacting with other humans in his environment he is moving, growing, changing, flowing uniqueness. As is true for his cells, the uniqueness of his total organization and harmony of purpose, or integration, with other humans are basic necessities for his optimum development.(Anderson 1959). Harris (1998), states that, formal education is imbued with a number of givens, some of which include; create or keep up with a logical argument, possessing the ability to analyze, empowering the student on the proper process for understanding claims, the ability to figure out the appropriate answer, and the process of deductive reasoning. Additionally, there is yet another type of thinking, and it concerns exploring and focusing on ideas, producing possibilities, and searching for a broad spectrum of correct answers instead of limiting oneself to merely one. A combination of critical and creative thinking are essential to one being successful in the working world, but creative thinking is more prone to take a back seat to the conventional pedagogical method, until one enters the world of work While the two types of thinking are different, they do not necessarily operate independent of each other. (See Appendix “A”) Creative thinking encompasses a bit more than merely putting one’s imagination into gear. The presence of creativity can be a lifestyle, it is a manner of living and developing, the manner in which one perceives the world, and above all else, it is a personality trait. When one lives creatively, they are prone to have the desire to develop their talents and they learn to use their abilities, to actualize the maximum extent of their capabilities. The presence of creativity dictates the exploring of new ideas, new destinations, as well as new activities. Creativity heightens the development of ones sensitivity to the problems which plague and beset others. The presence of artistic, scientific, entrepreneurial, or literary talent need not be prevalent for creativity to be present. In the process of defining creativity, one must acknowledge the existence of risk taking. The premier association of risk taking and creativity initially appeared in the work of Haefele (1962), where he offered that risk taking was one of the important basic dimensions of creativity. In so being, Haefele (1962) goes on to define creativity as, the ability to formulate new combinations from two or more concepts already in the mind" (p. 5). Functioning on the same mind set, Morgan (as cited in Taylor and Getzels, 1975) described creativity as "the power of the human mind to create new content­­ by transferring relations and thereby generating new 'correlates' ­­extend its sphere not only to representation in ideas, but also to fully sensuous presentation" (p. 2). Subsequently, Anderson adopted a similar position, and Cropley (1999) took it one step further and offered that risk taking was a non-intellectual entity in the creative cycle. These views have become popular among many others. Your observations will lead you to conclude that creativity has been defined in a number of ways. Some of the definitions contained herein point to similarities, which offers agreement on the definition. However, the opinions which will be offered by some, will point to fundamental variances.,while some of the offerings are obviously dissimilar we will see that creativity has been defined in many ways. Some people will say that there is a fundamental similarity and agreement in all of the definitions, yet others will contend there is no prevailing consensus on what creativity is. Weisberg (1993) points to the legitimacy surrounding the existence of the many intervening variables as he offered, understanding creativity is a daunting undertaking, and this is true not only due to the fact that creative thinking occurs in multiple domains, but due to the fact that the psychological and social forces which contribute are complex (p. 3) 2.1.1.1Related to Product As a product, creativity is a physical object or an idea which has assumed a level of consciousness and exposure, and will be either expressed or shown. Rogers (as cited in Taylor and Getzels, 1975) stated that creativity is an " emergence in action of a novel relational product, growing out of the uniqueness of the individual on the one hand, and the materials, events, people, or circumstances of his life on the other" (p. 4). The emphasis in this instance is how well the person conforms to their personal setting, and how it affects the expansion of the idea. According to Guilford (1956), there are five operations involved in creativity; cognition, memory, divergent thinking, convergent thinking, and evaluation. The four categories of content are figural, symbolic, semantic, and behavioral. The products which are a result of the association and operations and content, can be grouped into six categories. Units are characterized as basic elements or ideas. Classes make reference to groups with common elements. Relations serve as a connecting link between two units. The link is independent and has similarities to a preposition in grammar. Systems are complex or organizations of independent, interacting parts. Transformation comes into being when one item of information becomes something else.An example would be participles which depict this product as inverting or shrinking. The real of implications are actually perceptions which can be predicted, anticipated or expected.(Guilford 1954) Guilford belives that creativity is part of the convergent, divergent and evaluative thinking. Measurement is obtained through the fluency, flexibility, and uniqueness to a problem or situation. Also, measurement is calculated on the sensitivity which an individual has to the problem, and the persons ability to give information new meaning. Sensitivity to the problem is in the evaluative process. Foresight is important, as the person must be able to be able to anticipate those needs not yet met, if it is improvement which he strives to achieve. Flexibility, Fluency and Originality, are part of the divergent thinking. The convergent thinking is used to redefine information. The product is a transformation. A considerable amount of the effort which is embodied in the creative process is in the engagement of transformation.The act of making something known, which prior to initiating the process, was unknown.(The Letenist 2002). While creativity can be seen in the product, it can also be considered as a part of the process.Weinberg (1986) puts forth the concept that the defining of creativity can be accomplished with the use of different tools in sloving problems. Dr. Gunther von Hagens (1995), initiated putting on display the dissected bodies of transfigured people. He perfected the introduction of plastics into body tissue. His technique is a novel use of tools to solve the decay and distortion, using old methods of preserving human tissue. The end products become creative because the creative use of tools, defined creativity in the products made, the differences in people, the pressures that motivate, and the processes behind creativity. The products made are new and Ward, Finke, and Smith (1995) assert that the products made are new and fresh, which is a primary indicator of creativity. It is however understood that there are underlying differences in persons, such as some people are of course more creative than some. Also, with the inherent difference which each individual brings to the table, people also have different motivations. The mere process which is engaged to produce the product can be different. Such as some people find it to their advantage to remove themselves from others, while others are in need of dialogue and guidance. In "A Brief Review of Creativity," Dickhut (2003) outlined the past, present, and possible future of creativity theory and research. Dickhut proposed four possible definitions of creativity, which ranged from simply defining creativity as being something novel; to saying that creativity must not only be novel but also appropriate, using tools in a new way; and even to saying that creativity depends on the product made, the differences in the people who made the product, the pressures that motivated the people, and the processes behind creativity.( Porzio 2003) 2.1.1.2. Related to personality Maslow,(1954) takes the position that creativity is an aspect of personality. This humane assessment promotes creativity as a special sensitivity on the part of certain people. These individuals. live far more in the real world of nature than in the verbalized world of concepts,abstractions, beliefs, , and stereotypes that most people confuse with the real world. (Maslow 1954) Meaning to say that these persons described above are capable of seeing things in the raw, that they can perceive in all idoms, the generic, the concrete the fresh, the catrgorized, the abstract and the classified. Maslow offers that these people are motivated from within themselves. In so being they possess a boldness, freedom, courage and spontaneity. The creative aura becomes this persons overall attitude, and it is expressed as shown as such.(Maslow 1954).There are other adjectives which are used to depict the creative personality, such as, independence, self confidence and an unobstructed view of experience. They possess a jovial attitude, and have a penchant for games, a knack for things which are complicated, and a tolerance for things which are vague..( Shallcross 1981)). As in the words of Aristotle "There was never a genius without a tincture of madness. As it is known, Vincent van Gogh had a fascination with self mutilation. Until now due to the system which surrounds creativity people tend to be unsure about what underlying traits made some persons highly creative, while others are merely average.Aguilar-Alonso (1996) found that the presence of high verbal aptitude can be assessed via intelligence psychoticism, however in order to determine the creativity of drawing, could only be determined by one ability to see differences and extravision.. This suggests that creative behavior is complex in regards to various personality traits.Nelson and Quick (1994) described the following attributes: 1) intellectual and artistic values coupled with a broad scope of interests; 2) intuitive and willing to take risks; 3) highly motivated achievers with a desire for recognition; 4) independence in judgment and tolerance of ambiguity; 5) strong image of the creative self. (pp. 304-306) We may have the tendency to assume that all creative persons, such as poets, painters, musicians and artists are strong with a fantasy side. However, when we view scientists, business persons and ploiticans, we enter the world of the realists. This may have some degree of truth when one considers day to day routine, but when creativity comes into play there is no one size fits all. (Csikszentmihalyi 1996) 2.1.1.3 Related to Process Previously, there was a considerable amount of mystery and awe surrounding creativity and the undertaking thereof. In the times of the Ancient Romans and Greeks, poets would call upon the Gods to provide them with inspiration for their writings. Using poetic devices (e.g. similes and metaphors) we see prime examples of creativity. They are novel and appropriate, however the people of the times did not at all understand their origin. The novel idea persisted that it was devine intervention which inspired the writers.Wallas (1926) offered that creativity is imbued with four stages; incubation, preparation, verification and illumination (Bogen & Bogen 2003). In the proesss of preparation, the individual absorbs information, during incumation, the information settles in,In the process of illumination the solution presents itself to the individual, and during verification, the final product is created.In the most recent past, creativity was believed to hail from an unconscious thought process.(Weisberg, 1986) This was probably in some part to the Freudian approach to psychology which placed a great premium on unconscious thought.When one takes this perspective in mind, it is clear that the unconscious would process creative thought, and after these thought have been formulated, they would be pushed to the conscious. It is a given that the unconscious thought process can not be known, there was no logical means of determining how the process took place.Hirokawa and Miyara, as cited in Nelson and Quick (1994) agreed when they stated that "creativity is a process influenced by individual and organizational factors that results in the production of novel and useful ideas, products, or both" (p. 305). Taylor and Getzels (1975) argued that creativity is a process "that is extended in time and characterized by originality, adaptiveness, and realization" (p. 4). Weisberg (1993) acknowledged that creative processes have a way of appearing incomprehensible to the individuals themselves, who are responsible for the process (p. 3). The question is put forth whether creative persons ever reflect on the process which allows them to engage in the creative process.Could it be that a majority of creative persons rarely look back on the process which enabled them to participate in creative maneuvers? Haefele (1962) offered an individualistic description as he offered that the creative process is a new combination formed from pieces already in the mind by symbolic manipulation during dissociated thought" (p. 5). Works Cited Aguilar-Alonso, A. (1996). Personality and creativity. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 959-969. Anderson, H.H.(1959) Creativity and its Cultivation; New York. Harper and Brothers Boden, M. (2003) The creative Mind: Myths and Mechanisms (2nd Edition) London: Wedenfeld and Nicolson Bogen, J. E. & Bogen, G. M. (2003). Split-brains: Interhemispheric exchange in creativity. Retrieved on line on January 29, 2009, from http://www.its.caltech.edu/~jbogen/text/creat6.htm Boon, R.J.(1997),Cultural Creativity: The Importance of Creativity in Organizational and Educational Contexts, Grande Prairie Regional College, Retrieved on line on January 28, 2009, from www.lobstick.com/BOON.HTM Creativity, Retrieved on line on January 28, 2009, from www.buffalostate.edu/orgs/readingroomthesis/muneyht Cropley, A. J. (1999). Creativity and cognition: Producing effective novelty. Roeper Review, 21, 253-261. Csikszentmihalyi,M.(1996)Creativity: The Work and Lives of 91 Eminent People, published by HarperCollins, 1996. Davis, G. A. (1999) Creativity is Forever (4th Edition) Dubuque, Iowa. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company Dickhut, J. E. (2003). A Brief Review of Creativity. Retrieved 19 January, 2009, from http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/dickhut.html Guillford, J.P. (1954), Psychometric Methods. McGraw-Hill Education Guilford, J.P.(1956). Fourteen dimensions of temperament. American Psychological Association. Hagens, von G., (1995), A Life in Science, Body Works; The Anatomical Exhibition of Real Human Bodies, Retrieved on line on January 15, 2009, from www.hmns.org/files/marketing/BW3vonhagensbio.pdf Haefele, J. W. (1962). Creativity and innovation. New York, NY: Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Harris, R. (1998) Introduction to Creative Thinking, Retrieved on line on January 28, 2009, from www.virtualsalt.com/crebook1.htm Maslow,A (1954)"Creativity in Self Actualizating People", pg. 88. Muneyoshi, H.,(2004), Identifying How School Teachers use Creative Problem Solving. Buffalo State College, State University of New York, International center for Studies Nelson, D. L., & Quick, J. C. (1994). Organizational behavour: Foundations, realities, and challenges. New York, NY: West Publishing Company. Onda, Akira.(1994) Trends in Creativity Research in Japan--History and Present Status. Journal of Creative Behavior; v20 n2 p134-40 1986. 1986 Porzio, S.K. (2003), A Critical review of Eysenck’s Theory of Psychoticism and how it relates to creativity, Rochester Institute of Technology, Retrieved on line on January 15, 2009, from www.personality research.org/papers/prozio.html Rogers, C.(1968), Man and the Science of Man, Columbus, Ohio, Mereill Publishing Company Shallcross,D.(1981) Teaching Creative Behavior, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1981 pg. 10. Sternberg, R. J. (2007), Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized. New York: Cambridge University Press Taylor, I. A., & Getzels, J. W. (Eds.). (1975). Perspectives in creativity. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company. Torrance, E.P. (1962). Education and the creative potential. Minneapolis, MN:University of Minnisota Press The Lutenist, (2002) Psychological theories of creativity (ideas) Ward, T. B., Finke, R. A., & Smith, S. M. (1995). Creativity and the mind: Discovering the genius within. New York: Plenum. Weisberg, R. W. (1986). Creativity: Genius and other myths. New York: Freeman Weisberg, R. W. (1993). Creativity: Beyond the myth of genius. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman and Company.New York p.169 Appendix”A” Critical Thinking Creative Thinking analytic generative convergent divergent vertical lateral judgment suspended judgment probability possibility focused diffuse objective subjective answer an answer left brain right brain verbal visual linear associative reasoning richness, novelty yes but yes and Source: www.virtual salt.com/crebook1. Read More