When Children Are Exposed to Violence - Assignment Example

When children are exposed to violence Abstract This paper discusses the effect of exposure to violence on children and young adults. The link between such exposure and later violent behaviour is examined. Reference is made to various influences namely genetics, physiological arousal, environment, social learning and cognitive appraisal. The way in which children develop scripts and schemas based on the amount of violence they see is discussed, together with the implications for violent behaviour. Some of the research findings are reviewed, and recommendations are given for protecting children from the negative effects of exposure to violence. Introduction In this paper I will look at whether a person behaves more violently as a result of seeing acts of violence by other people. As a community psychologist, it is tempting to conclude that most acts of violence committed by children or youths are the result of those children watching violent movies or playing violent video games. Cases that have gripped the media include that of Dillon Klebold and Eric Harris who murdered their classmates at Columbine High School (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007). Some crimes appear to be very direct copycat crimes, such as the teenager who watched the movie ‘Natural born killers’ repeatedly and then murdered his mother and half-sister; or the teenager who shot several police and then stole a police car in a re-enactment of the video game ‘Grand Theft Auto’ which he has been playing repeatedly (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007). A 7-year old child watched some wrestling on TV and then turned to his younger brother and carried out a move he had just witnessed, killing the toddler. A gang of girls in California raped another girl with a broomstick after they had watched the same thing being done in ‘Born Innocent’ (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007). It has also been shown empirically that children who witness violence between their parents are more likely to grow up to commit violence themselves (Hines & Saudino, 2009). Anecdotes such as those cited above are not sufficiently empirical or clinical to draw a conclusion about. There are thousand of children watching the same movies or video games and they do not all go out and murder. For this reason a literature review is required to identity factors other than copycat or social learning, which also affect violent behaviour. This paper attempts to review these factors as well as the social learning approach to violent behaviour. Overview of factors in violent behaviour On the most physical level, a person’s genetics may influence him or her to commit violence. It has been shown that aggressive or violent tendencies run in families, although it is not always clear how much of this is due to genetics and how much is due to children copying the same kind of behaviour and relationships they see in their parents (Hines & Saudino, 2009; Loeber & Pardini, 2008). A second factor which may make a child or young adult act violently is if they become physiologically aroused by seeing violence (Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Browne & Hamilton-Giachristis, 2005; Bushman & Huesmann, 2006; Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007). This can happen with any strong emotional stimulation, including exposure to violence. This may be related to the fight or flight reaction, which prepares us for an emergency. Our body becomes prepared to defend itself either by fighting or by running away. (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Because of the fight or flight reaction, which is a state of high arousal, a person may be quick to act violently (Baron & Byrne, 1991). They may think that they are merely defending themselves when in fact they are attacking another person. Males may tend to be more violently reactive than females (Epanchin & Paul, 1987; Loeber & Pardini, 2008; Browne & Hamilton-Giachristis, 2005). Exposure to violence also desensitises a person to violence. Usually when we see violent acts or another person being injured, we feel strong negative emotions such as fear and anger, and compassion. People who are repeatedly exposed to violence show a decrease in this sensitivity, which may make them less inhibited about acting violently (Bushman & Huesmann, 2006; Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007; Loeber & Pardini, 2008). A person’s intelligence may also affect how violently they behave. Research has shown that children with lower intellectual functioning tend to be more violent (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007; Loeber & Pardini, 2008; Epanchin & Paul 1987). Children with brain damage or developmental delays, or with impulse control problems or emotional disturbances are also more prone to violent behaviour (Epanchin & Paul, 1987). As children enter adolescence the tendency to act violently increases and the highest levels of delinquency are found in the teenage years. By the time the person is in their mid twenties their aggression level has usually dropped again. It is not fully understood why there is this change over time, and it suggests that a person’s temperament, genetics and other physiological influences are not as constant as we usually think they are (Loeber & Pardini, 2008). Another important factor is the environment, which includes the home, family, school, friends, church, street gangs and so on. It also includes treatment which the child has by a community psychologist. Children in rougher communities are exposed to more violence, whether on TV or in real life, and this may teach them to view violence as a normal way of interacting or asserting oneself. But it is not clear why some at-risk children develop violent tendencies while others do not. It is also true that children from deprived communities tend to score lower on intellectual achievement. It could be that the environment both limits their intellectual development and also teaches them that violence is socially acceptable. So the interaction of individual (personality) variables with environmental influences is very important (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007; Loeber & Pardini, 2008; Browne & Hamilton-Giachristis, 2005; Anderson & Bushman, 2001). Social learning Some studies have found that when children witness violence they are affected more permanently than adults (Bushman & Huesmann, 2006). For adults, the effects may last only a few minutes and during this time the person is more likely to behave violently. This is due to the activation of feelings and thoughts that are violence-related. When the arousal has faded their behaviour and thinking becomes non-violent again (Browne & Hamilton-Giachristis, 2005; Anderson & Bushman, 2001). With children, there is a more long-term effect because the child is still learning how to think about the world and is still constructing mental maps of how to behave and what kind of actions will bring rewards. These mental maps are called schema or scripts (Browne & Hamilton-Giachristis, 2005; Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007; Bushman & Huesmann, 2006). A schema is a collection of feelings and beliefs about a particular topic, which acts as a filter and framework for new information. Scripts structure a person’s knowledge about specific social activities, such as appropriate behaviour in a restaurant or a hospital (Baron & Byrne, 1991). In adults, being exposed to violence activates or primes scripts about violence and this makes violent behaviour more likely. In children the scripts are still being created, so it is not just a case of temporarily activating them. The more violent input there is, the more violent the scripts will become in general. A child who watches a lot of violence will develop schemas and scripts that say that violence is a normal part of everyday life and can be used to solve conflicts. This child will start to view violence as appropriate and will base their own behaviour on this (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007; Epanchin & Paul, 1987; Bushman & Huesmann, 2006). Studies have shown that it does not make a difference whether the child watches violence in the media (TV, video games, movies) or in real life (Epanchin & Paul, 1987; Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Bushman & Huesmann, 2006; Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007). The effect is the same because the brain processes the information the same way. Children learn by imitating others and copying the behaviour of people or even cartoon heroes who they admire. Even babies use social learning and imitation as they copy the facial expressions of the people around them. When they make a certain facial expression, they also feel the emotion that matches that expression (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007). There are several things that make a child more likely to copy violent behaviour. The first is if they identify with and admire the character; the second is that the violent behaviour does not result in punishment or it actually brings a reward; thirdly the violence must seem justified as the best or only course of action. Movies where the perpetrator shows no remorse or is made to look like a hero or a ‘goodie’ are dangerous for children to watch. Finally, the situation must seem true to life. (Epanchin & Paul, 1987; Bushman & Huesmann, 2006; Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007). Information processing Information processing is linked to social learning but it is more cognitive and implies that the brain processes information, whereas social learning may include pure imitation without much thought. A child’s cognitive development affects whether he or she is able to make correct judgements about other people’s intentions (e.g. hostile or accidental actions). It also affects how well the child understands and controls his or her own behaviour (Epanchin & Paul, 1987). There are different models to explain exactly how scripting works, but they all suggest that in social learning a person evaluates social cues and links their internal cognitive script to the social situation. Then the script guides their behaviour. Scripts are stored in memory, and as a person gets older they use the scripts more automatically (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007; Bushman & Huesmann, 2006; Weiten, 1989). Thus it can become habitual to see the world as a hostile and dangerous place, and aggression and violence as the most appropriate behaviour. This ties in with cognitive appraisal or information-processing. If you are constantly looking out for threats coming your way, you are constantly stimulating the fight or flight response (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). You will tend to ignore information that is not hostile and instead you will notice more hostile cues. You will experience more stress and physiological arousal than someone who thinks the world is generally a safe place. This level of cognitive appraisal shapes one’s entire personality (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) and violent scripts can become permanently linked to the sense of self (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007). Solutions and interventions If children are exposed to violence, the best thing is for them to speak with a caring adult about what they saw and felt. This will help them to process the information more appropriately and reach a deeper level of understanding about choices for behaviour. It will teach the child to be more critical of violence in the media (Browne & Hamilton-Giachristis, 2005), and it will help them to lay down new scripts for social behaviour (e.g. talk about what has happened and how you feel about it, rather than just hitting someone) (Browne & Hamilton-Giachristis, 2005; Epanchin & Paul, 1987). As a community psychologist working with children and young adults, one should ask the child about the movies they watch or video games they play, and also whether they see violence in the streets or in the family. This gives them an opportunity to talk and lessens the chance of them creating scripts that rely on violence or see it as normal. The child should be protected from watching violence in the media (Bushman & Huesmann, 2006). One can explain to the child, in simple language, how it affects them to watch violence. This would help them to be more aware of the scripts which they are creating for themselves. In addition, the child should be encouraged to watch non-violent movies and video games. Conclusion In this paper I have examined the numerous factors that influence a child or young adult who behaves violently, and some solutions. Physical and genetic factors interact with more abstract influences such as social learning and cognitive processes. There is also the effect of different environments such as school and home. The research shows that when children are exposed to violence they will be more likely to behave violently themselves. This is due largely to social learning and imitation, and to the laying down of schemas and scripts which are mental maps that guide a person’s behaviour. Exposure to violence makes a child see the world as a dangerous place where violence is necessary and justified. The more people there are who think and feel this way, the more of a reality it becomes in society. Because viewing violence makes children more likely to act violently, they should be protected from violent movies or video games. They also need to be counselled by an adult. An educational and counselling approach helps the child to become more aware of their own scripts, and to be more critical of violence in the media or in real life. References Anderson, CA & Bushman, BJ (2001). ‘Effects of Violent Video Games on Aggressive Behavior, Aggressive Cognition, Aggressive Affect, Physiological Arousal, and Prosocial Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Scientific Literature’ Psychological Science 12 (5): 353; American Psychological Society Baron, R.A. & Byrne, D (1991). Social Psychology: understanding human interaction (6th ed). Toronto, Allyn & Bacon. Browne, KD & Hamilton-Giachritsis, C (2005). ‘The influence of violent media on children and adolescents: a public-health approach.’ The Lancet, 365; Feb 19-25, 2005; www.thelancet.com 9460. p 702 Bushman, B. J., & Huesmann, L. R. (2006). ‘Short-term and long-term effects of violent media on aggression in children and adults.’ Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160(4), 348-52. Epanchin, BC & Paul, JL (1987). Emotional Problems of Childhood and Adolescence. London; Merrill Publishing Co. Hines, D. A., & Saudino, K. J. (2009). ‘How much variance in psychological and physical aggression is predicted by genetics?’ In K. D. O'Leary, & E. M. Woodin (Eds.), Psychological and Physical Aggression in Couples: Causes and Interventions (pp. 141-162). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, US. Huesmann, L. R., & Kirwil, L. (2007). ‘Why observing violence increases the risk of violent behavior by the observer.’ Chapter 28 in D. J. Flannery, A. T. Vazsonyi, I. D. Waldman (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Violent Behavior and Aggression (pp. 545-570). New York, US: Cambridge University Press. Lazarus, RS & Folkman, S (1984) Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York: Springer Loeber, R & Pardini, D. (2008). ‘Neurobiology and the development of violence: common assumptions and controversies’. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 363, 2491–2503. Published online 23 April 2008. The Royal Society Weiten, W. (1989). Psychology: Themes and variations. California, Brooks & Cole Read More