Disability and Discrimination in Relation to Gender - Literature review Example

Disability and Discrimination in Relation To Gender: Literature Review Introduction Disability predisposes individuals to a number of disadvantages in the society. These disadvantages are exhibited in the form of discrimination and limited access to opportunities in various aspects of social life such as education, gender and employment. On the other hand, gender-based discrimination is not a new subject. Research has indicated that gender differences have acted as the basis for discrimination in the society over a long period of time. From the above, it therefore follows that there is a relationship between the two: gender and disability, in relation to discrimination. The aim of this review of literature is to provide a critical examination of academic literature that is relevant to the subject of how gender and disability combine to predispose disabled women to various forms of discrimination in the society. Theories of disability and femininity Generally, research in the field of gender and disability has covered different key issues that form the relationship between the two concepts. Researchers have sought to establish different ways in which disability and femininity interact and the effect of this interaction on disabled persons in the society. This has been done based on different theories of disability and femininity. Theoretically, several studies have separately evaluated the basis for both disability and gender. Essentially, disability has been seen in light of the social theory which emerged as an alternative to medical theories of disability. The essence of this theory is that disability is seen in the form of two contrasting elements: physical impairment and the actual disability (Ghai 2003, p. 42). Whereas physical impairment is a condition that is manifested in an individual, disability itself arises as a creation of the society (Ghai 2003, p. 43). This is because individuals having a form of physical impairment find themselves at a disadvantage because of the failure of the society to give them respect and treatment that is given to other individuals not having the physical impairment. Although the social theory of disability has grown in terms of popularity and as an alternative to other models of disability, there have been different views about its suitability. For instance, Thanem (2008, p. 586), observes that the social model of disability provides an accurate model of understanding how disabled individuals are discriminated against and segregated in different aspects of life. This discrimination and exclusion occurs in the form of social and material barriers that are created by the society. Shakespeare (2006, p. 13) on the other hand states that the social theory of disability has been effective in creating, among other things, an effective group consciousness among disabled individuals which forms an effective basis for social and political action against segregation. Additionally, Dancun (2013 p. 111), observes that the social model of disability, apart from providing a clear picture of the basis of social segregation against disabled persons, provides a sound comparison of the essence of oppression that occurs on the society against minority groups. This is because the oppression against disabled individuals as conceptualised in this theory is akin to the kind of oppression that occurs against minority groups in the society based on gender, race and sexuality. Although the social theory of disability provides a basis for understanding the interconnection between gender and disability, there have been a number of criticisms that have been levelled against it. Most notably, it has been pointed out that the theory assumes the existence of oppression for disabled people (Gerschick 2011, p. 132). Viewed in light of the relationship between disability and gender, it can be seen that the theory equates the concepts of minority with oppression. Although this is the case, it can be concluded that the relationship between gender and disability can best be analysed using the social theory of disability. Since this model assumes disability as a construct of the society, it augurs well with the fact that discrimination against minority groups is as a result of material and social barriers that are created against them by the society. Seen in light of femininity, this theory provides a basic background against which discrimination that is based on gender can be analysed. Additionally, there is limited research on the different ways in which physical disability and other aspects such as gender and race interact to affect disabled individuals (Gerschick 2011, p. 130). Although there has been a lot of research on the separate concepts of gender and disability, comprehensive researches on the way the two interact to affect different genders is yet to be carried out Disability, gender and discrimination Studies in the field of disability in relation to gender have focused on analysing how gender differences interact with disability to influence the extent to which members of different genders are discriminated against in accessing various facilities in the society. It emerges that different genders are discriminated against in several ways in different aspects of social life. According to Meekosha (2004, p. 4), that disability has assumed a gendered perspective is manifested in several ways. Essentially, disabled persons face disadvantages when it comes to accessing various resources in the society. However, with the presence of stereotypes that are based on gender, discrimination covers different aspects in the lives of the disabled individuals. It is therefore observed that discrimination against disabled persons is not only based on their condition but is also enhanced by their different genders (Meekosha 2004, p. 5). What this means is that although it may be assumed that gender is of little significance to disabled people, their disability is actually intensified by their different genders. For example, disabled women are likely to experience extreme oppression as compared to their male counterparts. This may occur in different forms in their private, family and public life. According to Barnartt (2013, p. 7), the connection between disability and gender is complex. It is observed that disabled individuals face a different form of representation in the society as compared to those that are not disabled. This implies that disability is a different experience to both male and female individuals. Since the society in general has different perceptions about male and female responsibilities, these responsibilities and perceptions are enhanced by the presence of impairment, particularly a physical one. On the other hand Asch, Rousso and Jefferies (2001, p. 18) argue that factors such as social class, gender and sex can either alleviate or exacerbate the effects of disability. It is important to note that disability in this context is differentiated from the related concepts of physical impairment (which arises from a biological condition) and handicap (which is seen as the social ramifications of the condition). As a result of this, disabled women face many social barriers as compared to disabled men in the form of access to education, employment and other aspects of general social life (Asch, Rousso & Jefferies 2001, p. 25). For instance, it is observed that although disabled graduates are less likely to get employment as compared to their non-disabled counterparts, disabled women are likely to compete less favourably with men for private sector jobs and increases in earnings (Parker et al. 2007, p. 5). One area in which gender discrimination is enhanced by disability is in terms of education. A number of studies have focused on elaborating the relationship between gender and disability within the context of education (Arms, Bickett & Graf 2013, p. 44; Dalen 2003, p. 3; Rousso & Wehmeyer 2001, p. 2). Dalen (2003 p. 3), in a study to identify the relationship between gender, disability and education, observes that discrimination against disabled women in education is as a result of the relationship between three key issues. These are lack of equality in education, failure to address the problem of disability in the society and the presence of gender inequality within the society. As such, these three conditions interact to increase the level of inequality in educational institutions, which is based on gender and enhanced by disability. According to Rousso and Wehmeyer (2001, p. 4), the relationship between disability and gender in education is manifested in the form of gender bias in the way boys and girls are treated in schools. As a result of gender-based assumptions and stereotypes about roles and responsibilities, disabled girls are at a disadvantage as compared to boys within the context of schools. In a study to evaluate how gender discrimination occurs in special schools, Arms, Bickett and Graf (2013, pp. 50-51), identify several ways in which girl students face segregation as a result of their gender. As a result of underrepresentation, insufficient support and exposure to treatment that is based on gender stereotypes, disabled girls in special education institutions are exposed to exacerbated disadvantages as compared to boys. There are several things that can be implied from the observations made in the studies about the relationship between gender and disability within the context of educational institutions. What is important though is that there seems to be a general consensus among researchers that gender bias affects the way girls develop and access education at an early age. Also, it can be seen that the effects of gender bias which girls are exposed to not only affect their performance in school but also influence their later lives. These effects are manifested in the form of reduced employment opportunities and the increased risk of poverty, gender violence and general social discrimination. Another area has been in the way women are disadvantaged as a result of the interaction between disability and femininity. There is a close relationship between disability and femininity (Kafer 2004, p. 110; Vogt 2012, p. 6). This relationship is manifested in several ways. To begin with, femininity is generally portrayed as a concept that is associated with weakness and the need for help. As such, both femininity and disability are similar in that they are associated with stereotypes of weakness and powerlessness (Kafer 2004, p. 111). Therefore, in addition to disabled women being seen from the stereotype of femininity, the fact that they are disabled exposes them to further disadvantages. Such disadvantages occur in the form of treatment at early life, experiences during schooling and obstacles in later life during employment and adult life. The stereotype of weakness is reflected in Garland-Thomsons’s (2011, p. 16) observation that feminist disability theory is essentially a theoretical construction that ascribes ability and disability to identities that are constructed and sustained by gender and sexuality differences. Therefore, when seen within this context, both disability and femininity are similar in that they are seen as fabrications of the society based on culture, sex, gender and other criteria that are used to ascribe particular stereotypes to members of the society. Hall (2011, p. 2) observes that the relationship between the two concepts lies in the fact that both show how disability and femininity cannot be reduced to the existence of a physical impairment or biological sex respectively. It is from this basis that studies have concluded that disabled women are exposed to a number of prejudices which are based on both their disability and their position in the society as women. For instance, because of their condition, such women are not encouraged to fulfil the roles that are expected of ordinary women in terms of marriage, child bearing and family life (Lorber & Moore 2002 p. 64). This in turn affects their overall position in the society with regard to how they fulfil responsibilities that are expected of them. In essence, studies indicate that gender and disability interact in different ways to increase the discrimination that disabled women face in the society. For instance, by being exposed to different conditions while in school, disabled girls are at a disadvantage as compared to boys. In addition, social obstacles and disadvantages against disabled girls influence the way they play their roles in the society as females. As a result of gender-based stereotypes in the society, disabled women are disadvantaged in terms of fulfilling responsibilities that are expected of them. It is important to note that the disadvantages which disabled women face in the society are first as a result of their disability and secondly, they are enhanced by gender stereotypes in the society. As a result, disabled women face increased discrimination as girls and in later life as adult women. Conclusion From the foregoing, it can be concluded that studies in the area of gender and disability have sought to establish different ways in which the two concepts interact and how this interaction affects women with disability. Such kind of knowledge is necessary in different ways. For instance, understanding how gender and disability contribute to discrimination against disabled women helps policymakers in formulating the right kind of policies to address the issue. This touches on different aspects of social life such as education, employment and general family life. Secondly, there is general consensus that disability is similar to femininity in that both concepts are used to indicate how particular members of the society become disadvantaged as a result of cultural and social stereotypes. Although this is the case, there still remains a need to conduct comprehensive research on different ways in which gender stereotypes increase the level of discrimination against disabled women. References Arms, E, Bickett, J & Graf, V 2013, ‘Gender bias and imbalance: girls in US special education programmes,’ in D Raftery & M Valiulis (eds), Gender balance and gender bias in education (pp. 44–54), Routledge, London. Asch, A & Rousso, H & Jefferies, T 2001, ‘Beyond pedestals: the lives of girls and women with disabilities,’ in H, Rousso & M L, Wehmeyer (eds), Double Jeopardy: Addressing Gender Equity in Special Education (pp. 13–48), SUNY, New York. Barnartt, S N 2013, ‘Introduction: disability and intersecting statuses,’ in S N, Barnartt, eds, Disability and Intersecting Statuses (pp. 1–20), Emerald, London. Dancun, N 2013, ‘Disability, sexuality and bullying,’ in I Rivers & N, Dancun (eds), Bullying: experiences and discourses of sexuality and gender, pp. 105–119. Routledge, London. Dalen, M 2003, ‘The relationship between disability, gender and education in the Norwegian context’, Background Paper, Education for All Global Monitoring Report, Unesco. Accessed from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001467/146758e.pdf (10 April 2014). Garland-Thomson, R 2011, ‘Integrating disability, transforming feminist theory.’ In, K Q, Hall, ed, Feminist Disability Studies, pp. 13–47. Indiana University Press, Bloomington. Gerschick, T 2011, ‘Disability identity intersections with masculinity,’ In, J A, Laker & T Davis (eds), Masculinities in Higher Education: Theoretical and Practical Considerations (pp. 131–143), Routledge, New York. Ghai, A 2003, (Dis)embodied form: issues of disabled women, Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi. Hall, K Q 2011, ‘Reimagining disability and gender through feminist studies,’ in, Q Hall (ed), Feminist disability studies (pp. 1–12), Indiana University Press, Bloomington. Kafer, A 2004, ‘Inseparable: gender and disability in the amputee-devotee community,’ in B G Smith & B Hutchison (eds), Gendering disability (pp. 107–118). Rutgers University Press, New York. Lorber, J & Moore, L J 2002, Gender and the social construction of illness, Alta Mira Press, London. Meekosha, H 2004, ‘Gender and disability’, viewed 11 April 2014, Parker, G, Grebe, C, Hirst, M, Hendey, N & Pascall, G 2003, ‘Double discrimination? Gender and disability in access to the labour market’, University of York, Working Paper No. ESF 2237 12. 07, viewed 11 April 2014, Rousso, H & Wehmeyer, M L 2001, ‘Introduction,’ in H Rousso & M L Wehmeyer (eds), Double jeopardy: addressing gender equity in special education (pp. 1–10), SUNY, New York. Shakespeare, T 2006, Disability rights and wrongs, Routledge, London. Thanem, T 2008, ‘Embodying disability in diversity management research’, Equal Opportunities International, vol. 27, no. 7, pp. 581–595. Vogt, S 2013, Bodies of silence: disability, femininity and the keepers of the gene pool, 1910–1925. PhD Dissertation, Graduate College, University of Illinois, Chicago, viewed 11 April 2014, Read More

Although the social theory of disability provides a basis for understanding the interconnection between gender and disability, there have been a number of criticisms that have been levelled against it. Most notably, it has been pointed out that the theory assumes the existence of oppression for disabled people (Gerschick 2011, p. 132). Viewed in light of the relationship between disability and gender, it can be seen that the theory equates the concepts of minority with oppression. Although this is the case, it can be concluded that the relationship between gender and disability can best be analysed using the social theory of disability.

Since this model assumes disability as a construct of the society, it augurs well with the fact that discrimination against minority groups is as a result of material and social barriers that are created against them by the society. Seen in light of femininity, this theory provides a basic background against which discrimination that is based on gender can be analysed. Additionally, there is limited research on the different ways in which physical disability and other aspects such as gender and race interact to affect disabled individuals (Gerschick 2011, p. 130). Although there has been a lot of research on the separate concepts of gender and disability, comprehensive researches on the way the two interact to affect different genders is yet to be carried out Disability, gender and discrimination Studies in the field of disability in relation to gender have focused on analysing how gender differences interact with disability to influence the extent to which members of different genders are discriminated against in accessing various facilities in the society.

It emerges that different genders are discriminated against in several ways in different aspects of social life. According to Meekosha (2004, p. 4), that disability has assumed a gendered perspective is manifested in several ways. Essentially, disabled persons face disadvantages when it comes to accessing various resources in the society. However, with the presence of stereotypes that are based on gender, discrimination covers different aspects in the lives of the disabled individuals. It is therefore observed that discrimination against disabled persons is not only based on their condition but is also enhanced by their different genders (Meekosha 2004, p. 5). What this means is that although it may be assumed that gender is of little significance to disabled people, their disability is actually intensified by their different genders.

For example, disabled women are likely to experience extreme oppression as compared to their male counterparts. This may occur in different forms in their private, family and public life. According to Barnartt (2013, p. 7), the connection between disability and gender is complex. It is observed that disabled individuals face a different form of representation in the society as compared to those that are not disabled. This implies that disability is a different experience to both male and female individuals.

Since the society in general has different perceptions about male and female responsibilities, these responsibilities and perceptions are enhanced by the presence of impairment, particularly a physical one. On the other hand Asch, Rousso and Jefferies (2001, p. 18) argue that factors such as social class, gender and sex can either alleviate or exacerbate the effects of disability. It is important to note that disability in this context is differentiated from the related concepts of physical impairment (which arises from a biological condition) and handicap (which is seen as the social ramifications of the condition).

As a result of this, disabled women face many social barriers as compared to disabled men in the form of access to education, employment and other aspects of general social life (Asch, Rousso & Jefferies 2001, p. 25). For instance, it is observed that although disabled graduates are less likely to get employment as compared to their non-disabled counterparts, disabled women are likely to compete less favourably with men for private sector jobs and increases in earnings (Parker et al. 2007, p. 5).

Read More