StudentShare
Contact Us
Sign In / Sign Up for FREE
Search
Go to advanced search...
Free

Psychological Models Explaining Barriers to Exercise - Term Paper Example

Cite this document
Summary
The paper "Psychological Models Explaining Barriers to Exercise" discusses the relevance of psychological models to explain barriers to the implementation and maintenance of exercise in the field of exercise for health. Exercise reducу a wide range of diseases such as obesity and mental disorders…
Download full paper File format: .doc, available for editing
GRAB THE BEST PAPER95.1% of users find it useful
Psychological Models Explaining Barriers to Exercise
Read Text Preview

Extract of sample "Psychological Models Explaining Barriers to Exercise"

Discuss the relevance of psychological models to explain some of the barriers to the implementation and maintenance of exercise in the field of exercise for health. Exercise and physical activity in general have been shown to cause a significant reduction in a wide range of diseases such as cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes, and mental disorders (Stralen et al., 2008). Despite this positive outcome, the trend towards a sedentary lifestyle is increasing in society (Fallon, Hausenblas and Nigg, 2005; Lee, Arthur and Avis 2008; van Stralen, Lechner, Mudde, DeVries and Bolman 2008; Segar, Eccles, Richardson, 2008; Biddle and Fuchs, 2009). This has led health authorities and researchers to develop interventions based on theoretical models of behaviour change in an attempt to eradicate this prevailing trend and replace it with increased physical activity. The Transtheoretical Model (TTM; Prochaska & DiClemente, 1982, p. 83) has been used to facilitate positive behaviour change towards physical activity. The model is a combination of stages of change, self-efficacy, temptation, decisional balance and processes of change. The first stage, the stage of change, has been widely adopted by health and fitness professionals to help individuals move through the six theoretical stages: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, termination with a positive outcome (progression) or negative outcome (relapse). In the pre-contemplation stage the individual is not identifying the need for an exercise programme within the next 6 months. While smoothly moving to the next stage - the contemplation, the individual has begun to form an idea about exercising and eventually initiates it within the next 6 months. The preparation stage involves planning to start exercising within the next 60 days. The action period represents the first 6 months after commencing the exercise programme. In the maintenance stage a sustained exercise programme is developed which lasts no more than 6 months. The termination of the exercise program would mean that the individual has successfully changed his/her behaviour and consolidated the life-style in accordance with it. According to Prochaska & Velicer (1997) the termination stage is when an individual has embedded in himself/herself in an exercise behaviour for more than five years and has no desire for temptations and a maintains a robust self-efficacy for a healthy lifestyle. There is a possibility for a relapse phase to appear. The relapse can happen during any one of the enumerated stages. The relapse results in returning of the individual to the previous stage. According to Bandura (1997) it is vital for a theoretical stage model to include the three fundamental elements: qualitative transformations across stages, constant sequence of change, and no reversibility. Bandura (1997) further claims that the TTM disregards these three elements. Qualitative transformations are disregarded due to the fact that the first two stages (pre-contemplation and contemplation) are referred to as intentional behaviour. The intentional behaviour involves phrases such as “I may be joining the gym!” or “I am joining the gym!”. Whereas the other stages are regulated by the duration of behaviour change (6 months, 1 year, 5 years). Therefore the lack of similarity between stages makes qualitative transformation unreliable. Constant sequences of change and no reversibility are not in the TTM according to Bandura (1997) because individuals can initiate a behaviour change at any stage, they do not start at the same stage and they are able to jump a stage. According to Kraft, Sutton, and Reynolds (1999) the TTM lacks “theoretical reasoning” because to suggest that a period of six month is enough for an individual to adopt a behaviour change is an assumption that lacks evidence substantiation. Their critical view on the TTM is also supported by Sutton (2001), who suggested that the TTM time period is arbitrary and based on Individual’s judgment or preference. Marshall and Biddle (2001) suggested that the TTM is based on conclusions lacking in empirical evidence to support them. Alternatively, Rollnick, Heather and Bell (1992), suggest that ‘readiness to change’ should be seen as a continuum rather than series of changes. However, this assumption is based on the fact that the continuum is gradual rather than in leaps from one stage to another. A study by West (2005), “Time for a change: putting the Transtheoretical (Stages of Change) Model to rest” supports the criticism against the TTM model because it is centered more on theoretical assumptions and less on theoretical reasons. Bridle, Riemsma, Pattenden and et al (2005) through a systematic review of 37 studies found that there was limited evidence supporting behavioural change through stages. Rollnick Marshall and Biddle (2001) also support the idea that the TTM is based on heuristic predictions. Both Teixeira et al. (2006) and Gallagher et al. (2006) agree that the TTM has helped to overcome barriers in both weight management and exercise adherence by targeting individual self-efficacy and behavioural strategies. It is generally recognised that adherence to a programme of exercise plays a crucial role in an individual’s success in maintaining positive results both psychologically and physically. By comprehending how this can vary according to an individual’s situation and how strategies for progress can be achieved every individual should be assisted to develop and maintain the habits of a healthy lifestyle. The TTM uses the same format of stages of change for self-efficacy; temptation, decisional balance, and the process of change. Self- efficacy is one’s own perception of the ability to achieve a positive outcome (e.g. I am confident that I can improve my health) (Bandura, 1997). According to Lee, Arthur and Avis (2008) it is individual’s self-confidence/belief which leads towards a positive and sustained behavioural change. However, outcome expectations may differ (Lee, Arthur and Avis, 2008). Individuals may possess the knowledge or past experience how beneficial exercises are, however they may have lost the urge to prioritize exercise in their hectic and busy everyday life. This is also reflected by Health Education Initiative efforts to encourage and stimulate people from different backgrounds to perceive exercise as something that can be easily incorporated into their daily activities rather than a time consumer that needs to be allocated in between other important tasks. Biddle and Fuchs (2009) found a tendency for decline in physical activity with the fact that people get older. However, they noted that within small age range males were more active than females. Temptation is defined as an individual’s urge to return to an old habit. Although some studies (Hausenblas, Nigg, Dannecker and et al., 2001) discovered that the level of temptation has decreased linearly as an individual moved towards upper stages, Lee, Arthur and Avis (2008) tried to give a reasonable explanation to the question: why temptation linearly decreases as it moves along the continuum of stages. A possible interpretation might be because during the first two stages individuals did not have the chance to experience the positive results of physical activities; therefore the urge to avoid exercising activies had increased. The desire has diminished in upper stages because individuals have begun to experience the benefits of physical activities, thereby expanding the level of self-efficacy. Bandura (2005) strongly recommanded that greater emphasis is accumulated on the first two stages to aid individuals overcome the temptation and help them out to accomplish self-regulation. He introduced a Self-Regulation Model in which people are able to self-monitor their own health behavioural issues, agree goal settings, focus on small time frames which are realistic and achievable, and self-reactive stimulus to enhance motivation and therefore maintain positive behaviour change. Lee, Arthur and Avis, (2008) investigated that reducing stress and negative thoughts facilitated and encouraged the development of positive behaviour change. Decisional balance in the TTM is therefore regarded as an important tool, especially during the first two stages, where individual levels of “for and against” vary condiderable and the arguments “for” are higher than those for “against”. Fallon, Hausenblas and Nigg (2005) examined that by integrating decisional balance in the early stages of TTM the individual is better equipped to move forward to the stage of alternations. Finally, the process of changing is a combination of five cognitive operations (including changes in the way people think and feel about their inactivity and exercise) and five behavioural steps (where people eventually make changes to their behaviour in relation to an active life style which involves exercising). Cognitive techniques assist individuals to move through the early progressional changes which consist of: consciousness raising, dramatic relief, environmental re-evaluation, self re-evaluation and social liberation. Consciousness raising occurs when the individual’s level of awareness of the effects of inactivity has increased. Reading leaflets or articles which debate and refer to the direct connection between inactivity and various illnesses such as coronary vascular diseases, diabetes and obesity will encourage people to seek greater physical activity and to actively follow the patterns of a healthy life style. The dramatic relief is associated with a strong emotional response to events linked to sedentary way of life. An example can be given with a close friend or relative who has been diagnosed with diabetis as a result of obesity. Environmental re-evaluation is the process when an individual becomes aware of the impact of his/her inactivity on others (e.g. not being able to play with his children because he is too unfit to do that). Self-re-evaluation appears in the form of evaluating one’s own self-perceptions as a sedentary person (e.g. feeling unhappy because of overweight/obesity). Social liberation occurs when an individual start to notice social conditions that support change (e.g. the opening of new leisure centres). Behavioural perfomances assist individuals to move smoothly through the last stages of change which comprise of: self-liberation, helping relationships, counter-conditioning, reinforcement management and Stimulus control. Self-liberation represents the individual’s self- attitude/belief that they can change and commit to act on that belief (e.g. telling friends and family that they are willing to become physically active or that they have decided to join in the local gym). Helping relationships means to accept the aid or support of others in order to begin an exercise programme (e.g. accepting an offer from a friend to join exercise classes, or to play recreational sport). Counter-conditioning is the moment when an individual replaces inactivity with a more physically active behaviour (e.g. spending more hours gardening, going for a walk, or choosing to walk instead of driving). Reinforcement management is the stage when the person self-rewards himself for maintaining an exercise behaviour (e.g. going on holiday, buying new clothes, noticing how good-looking he has become, others reaffirming his behaviour ). Stimulus control is the pratcise of avoiding relapses or temptations (e.g. taping favourite TV programmes to watch after exercising, going to the gym straight after work instead of going home and relaxing). At every stage the individual has to make a decision based on the positive arguments (perceived advantages) and the negative arguments (perceived disadvantages) of the exercising. There are many factors that can influence the decision in each stage. However, if the cognitive processes are properly engaged then the balance can be maintained and the decision taken will be in favour of the positive behaviours. Professional intervention at the right time and stage can assure that the individual will follow the positive changes of active physical behaviour and implement them as part of his lifestyle. Therefore, it is critical that health and fitness professionals possess the understanding to discover individuals’ levels of motivation and encourage and stimulate them to overcome any obstacles on their way to perform exercising activities. In this way medical and health specialists can facilitate people in destroying these barriers. Despite the argument that psychological interventions are too theoretical, namely they help the fitness professionals to comprehend and evaluate the myriads of human complexities and ultimately to guide individuals in accomplishing and maintaining positive behavioural change. [Word count: 1,723/2000] References: 1. Bandura, A. (1997). ‘Self-efficacy: The exercise of control’. New York: Freeman, pp. 604 2. Bandura, A. (2005). ‘The Primacy of Self-Regulation in Health Promotion’. Jounal of Applied Psychology, 54 (2), 245-254. [Accessed 05/11/09] 3. Biddle, S.J.H. and Fuchs, R. (2009). ‘Exercise psychology: A view from Europe’. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 10, 410-419. [Accessed 05/11/09] 4. Bridle, C., Riemsma, R.P., Pattenden, J., Sowden, A.J., Mather, L., Watt, I.S., Walker, A. (2005). ‘Systematic review of the effectiveness of health behavior interventions based on the transtheoretical model’. Psychol Health, 20, 283–301. [Accessed 10/11/2009] 5. Fallon, E.A., Hausenblas, H.A. Nigg, C.R. (2005). ‘The transtheoretical model and exercise adherence: examining construct associations in later stages of change’. Jounal of Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6, 629-641. [Accessed 05/11/09] 6. Gallagher, KI; Jakicic,JM; Napolitano, MA; Marcus, BH. (2006). ‘Psychosocial Factors Related to Physical Activity and Weight Loss in Overweight Women’. Medicine & Science in Sport and Exercise. [Accessed on 5/11/9] 7. Hausenblas, H. A., Nigg, C.R., Dannecker, E.A., Symons, D.A., Ellis, S.R., Fallon, E.A., et al. (2001). ‘A missing piece of the transtheoretical model applied to exercise: Development and validation of the temptation to not exercise scale’. Psychology & Health, 16, 381-390. [Accessed 05/11/09] 8. Kraft, P., Sutton, S., & Reynolds, H. (1999).’The transtheoretical model of behaviour change: Are the stages qualitatively different?’ Psychology and Health, 14, 433-450. [Accessed 05/11/09] 9. Lee, L.L., Arthur, A. and Avis, M. (2008). ‘Using self-efficacy theory to develop interventions that help older people overcome psychological barriers to physical activity: A discussion paper’. Journal of Nursing Studies, 45, 1690-99. [Accessed 05/11/09] 10. Marshall, S.J., Biddle, J.H. (2001). ‘The Transtheoretical Model of Behaviour Change: A Meta Analysis of Applications to Physical Activity and Exercise’. Ann Behav. Med, 23(4), 229-246. [Accessed 06/11/09] 11. Prochaska, J., and DiClemente, C. (1982/83). ‘Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change’. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(3), 390-395. [Accessed 05/11/09] 12. Prochaska,J.,& Velicer,W. (1997).’The Transtheoretical model of health behaviour change’. American Journal of Health Promotion, 12(1), 38-48. [Accessed 05/11/09] 13. Rollnick, S., Heather, N., and Bell, A. (1992). ‘Negotiating behaviour change in medical settings: the development of brief motivational interviewing.’ J Mental Health, 1, 25–37. [Accessed 10/11/09] 14. Segar, M.L., Eccles, J.S., Richardson, C.R. (2008). ‘Type of Physical Activity Goal Influences Participation In Healthy Midlife Women.’ Womem’s Health Issues, 18, 281-291. [Accessed 05/11/09] 15. Sutton, S. (2001).’ Back to the drawing board? A review of applications of the transtheoretical model to substance abuse’. Addictions, 96, 175-186. [Accessed 05/11/09] 16. Teixeira, P. J., Going, S.B., Houtkooper, L.B., Cussler, E.C., Metcalfe, L.L., Blew, R.M., Sardinha, L.B. and Lohman, T.G. (2006). ‘Exercise Motivation, Eating and Body Image Variables as Predictors of Weight Control.’ Med Sci Sports Exerc, vol. 38, 179 – 188. [Accessed on 5/11/9] 17. Van Stralen, M.M., Lechner, L., Mudde, A.N., DeVries, H., and Bolman, C. (2008). ‘Determinants of awareness, initiation and maintenance of physical activity among the over-fifties: a Delphi study.’ Health Education Research, Dep. of Psychology. [Accessed 05/11/09] 18. West R. (2005). ‘Time for a change: putting the Transtheoretical (Stages of Change) Model to rest.’ Addiction, 100 (8), 1036-9. [Accessed 05/11/09] Read More
Cite this document
  • APA
  • MLA
  • CHICAGO
(The Relevance of Psychological Models to Explain Barriers to the Term Paper, n.d.)
The Relevance of Psychological Models to Explain Barriers to the Term Paper. Retrieved from https://studentshare.org/psychology/1561689-discuss-the-relevance-of-psychological-models-to-explain-some-of-the-barriers-to-the-implementation-and-maintenance-of-exercise-in-the-field-of-exercise-for-health
(The Relevance of Psychological Models to Explain Barriers to the Term Paper)
The Relevance of Psychological Models to Explain Barriers to the Term Paper. https://studentshare.org/psychology/1561689-discuss-the-relevance-of-psychological-models-to-explain-some-of-the-barriers-to-the-implementation-and-maintenance-of-exercise-in-the-field-of-exercise-for-health.
“The Relevance of Psychological Models to Explain Barriers to the Term Paper”, n.d. https://studentshare.org/psychology/1561689-discuss-the-relevance-of-psychological-models-to-explain-some-of-the-barriers-to-the-implementation-and-maintenance-of-exercise-in-the-field-of-exercise-for-health.
  • Cited: 0 times

CHECK THESE SAMPLES OF Psychological Models Explaining Barriers to Exercise

Changing Health-Risk Behaviors

This will be achieved through the analysis and description of some of the psychological models, principles and theories with the intention of predicting and explaining health behavior with the help of already developed theories as well as practices that are evidence-based in health psychology.... Health Behavior Changes models, Principles and Theories Social cognition models and principles of health behavior have been described used motivation models....
6 Pages (1500 words) Article

Health and Exercise Psychology

The essay "Health and exercise Psychology" critically analyzes the major issues concerning health and exercise psychology.... To others, the very mention of the word exercise puts them off.... To them, exercising is a boring, time-wasting, and tiring exercise, which people should avoid at all costs.... n the same vein, you are likely to get different responses if you ask some 50 people to explain what exercise entails....
10 Pages (2500 words) Essay

Pilates as One of the Sport Branches

The module is based on learning and communication theories with special reference to Pilates exercise for the adult learners who fall in the age group of 20 to 65 years of age.... While the first half is complete beginners to this exercise routine, the second half is familiar with Pilates, yoga, aerobics, and other exercise forms.... The author would also identify certain factors which affect learning in an ordinary individual before evaluating and explaining at least two learning theories in detail....
8 Pages (2000 words) Article

What Is Psychology, Why It Is Important In Health And Social Care

Understanding and being aware of the psychological effect on service users is important to maintain a high level of personnel stated care.... This paper talks about psychology which studies the behavior and mind of a human being scientifically.... As such, it is a multifaceted discipline inclusive of various sub-fields such as cognitive processes, social behaviors; Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior....
9 Pages (2250 words) Essay

Approaches to Health and Social Care in Contemporary Times

1) refers to when he says that in the traditional models 'chronic diseases have become more important than the persons who harbor them.... However, there have been shifts to models that consider other factors such as social, psychological, and environmental in shaping the context of a disease and illness.... This essay "Approaches to Health and Social Care in Contemporary Times" is about a patient's story on his experience with diabetes will be explored with an aim to construct the cultural, social, and psychological meaning and locate the facts in contemporary theoretical perspectives....
13 Pages (3250 words) Essay

Isease of the entral Nervous System: Multiple Sclerosis Neurorehabilitation

He reported a strong commitment to exercise as well as had in recent times been instructed by his physician to indulge in a workout plan as a means of mitigating his MS symptoms.... As a result, any neurorehabilitation plan/ scheme should apparently include physical exercise.... In general rehabilitation programs for MS patients have been founded on the recommendation of aerobic exercises aimed at establishing how much exercise MS patients can perform, together with its potential advantages in decreasing symptoms like fatigue, whereas far fewer programs have been aimed at enhancing muscular strength....
9 Pages (2250 words) Essay

Changing Health-Risk Behaviors

The paper "Changing Health-Risk Behaviors" discusses that the integration into existing practices based on evidence on cognitive-behavioural models has a crucial enhancement in the effectiveness and efficacy of the interventions, theories on behavior change validity and economical information.... Such scholarly journals on Health Psychology are dedicated to making the readers understand the scientific relations existing among behavior, psychological factors and physical illness and health....
6 Pages (1500 words) Article

Cognitive Therapy and Increased Exercise Adherence in Older Adults

Mackinnon (2003) found that opportunities to enhance physical well-being, health, functional capacity, and quality of life and also encouragement by physicians are important for adhering to exercise regimens.... The paper "Cognitive Therapy and Increased exercise Adherence in Older Adults" describe that regular exercise has definite health advantages yet only 31% of elderly of 65 to 74 yrs and 23% above 75 indulge in moderate exercise at least three times per week....
9 Pages (2250 words) Essay
sponsored ads
We use cookies to create the best experience for you. Keep on browsing if you are OK with that, or find out how to manage cookies.
Contact Us